FRANCE. 



357 



areas have been placed under efficient protec- 

 tion, and considerable tracts of denuded land 

 have been planted. Quite recently instruction 

 in forestry has begun to be given in connection 

 with one of the schools of technology in Lon- 

 don, and there is some prospect of the estab- 

 lishment of a forestry-school in England. 



FRANCE, a republic in Western Europe. The 

 republic was proclaimed Sept. 4, 1870. The 

 Constitution was adopted Feb. 25, 1875, by 

 the National Assembly elected in 1871. The 

 Chamber of Deputies is elected by universal 

 suffrage under the scrutin d'arrondissement, 

 which was adopted Nov. 11, 1875. Each ar- 

 rondissement is represented by a deputy, and, 

 if its population is in excess of 100,000, by 

 additional deputies for each 100,000 or part of 

 100,000 beyond that number. The number of 

 electors in 1881 was 10,179,345. The number 

 of deputies is 557. The Senate is composed of 

 300 members, 75 of whom are chosen for life," 

 the Senate electing the successors of deceased 

 members. The remaining 225 are elected, 75 

 every three years, by the departments and 

 provinces. They are chosen by senatorial elect- 

 ors, elected to represent each of the com- 

 munes and municipalities, together with the 

 members of the Council General and the depu- 

 ties of the department, who possess votes ex 

 officio. The Chamber of Deputies is elected 

 for four years. The National Assembly meets 

 annually on the second Tuesday in January, 

 and must remain in session five months. The 

 President of the Republic can call an extraordi- 

 nary session, and is compelled to do so if one 

 half of the members of each Chamber unite in 

 demanding it. The two Chambers possess equal 

 and concurrent powers of legislation ; but all 

 financial measures must originate in the Cham- 

 ber of Deputies. The executive head of the 

 republic is the President, who is elected for the 

 term of seven years by a majority of the depu- 

 ties and senators in joint session. The Presi- 

 dent has the disposal of the military forces, 

 makes all appointments, civil and military, and 

 can propose legislation ; but all acts must be 

 countersigned by the ministers, who are ap- 

 pointed by the President, and are responsible 

 to the Chambers. 



The Government. The President of the Re- 

 public is Francois P. Jules Grevy, born in 1813, 

 who was a member of the Constituent Assem- 

 bly of 1848, President of the Assembly from 

 1871 to 1873, and President of the Chamber of 

 Deputies from 1876 to 1879 ; elected January 

 30, 1879. 



The Cabinet, appointed February 21st, is 

 composed as follows : 



President of the Council and Minister of Pub- 

 lic Instruction, Jules Ferry, who was born at 

 Paris in 1823, admitted to the bar in 1848, 

 member of the Government of National De- 

 fense (1870-'71), Prefect of the Seine Depart- 

 ment (1871-'72), Embassador to Greece (1872 

 -'73), Minister of Public Instruction and Fine 

 Arts (1879-'SO), President of the Council (1880 



-'81), and Minister of Public Instruction in 

 1882. 



Minister of Foreign Affairs, Paul Amand 

 Challemel-Lacour, born in 1827, Professor of 

 Philosophy at Pau and Limoges (1849-'51), ex- 

 pelled from France in 1852, returned in 1859, 

 Prefect of Rhone and Commissaire of the Pie- 

 public (1870), delegate to the National As- 

 sembly (1872), Senator (1876), Embassador to 

 Switzerland (1879-'80), to England (1880-'82). 



Minister of the Interior, Pierre Marie Wal- 

 deck-Rou3seau, born in 1846, advocate, deputy 

 since 1879, Minister of the Interior in Gam- 

 betta's ministry. 



Minister of Finance, P. Paul Emmanuel Ti- 

 rard, incumbent in the two preceding minis- 

 tries, born in 1826, engineer and merchant, 

 Minister of Commerce (1879-'81), reappointed 

 Jan. 31, 1882; appointed Minister of Finance 

 Aug. 7, 1882. 



Minister of Justice, Felix Martin Feuille'e, 

 born in 1830, deputy since 1876, Under-Secre- 

 tary of the Interior in 1879, and of Justice in 

 December, 1879. 



Minister of Commerce, Anne Charles He'ris- 

 son, born in 1831, advocate, deputy (1878), held 

 over from the Duclerc Cabinet. 



Minister of Agriculture, Felix Jules Meline, 

 born in 1838, lawyer, deputy in 1872 and 1876, 

 Under- Secretary of the Interior in 1879. 



Minister of War, Gen. Thibaudin, entered the 

 army in 1848, lieutenant-colonel of cavalry 

 (1868), brigadier- general (1877), general of 

 division (1880), appointed Jan. 31, 1883. 



Minister of Marine and the Colonies, Charles 

 Marie Brun, born in 1821, engineer by profes- 

 sion, Director of Naval Construction (1875), 

 elected deputy (1871), senator (1876). 



Minister of Posts and Telegraphs, Louis Co- 

 chery. born in 1830, Under-Secretary in the 

 Ministry of Finance (1873-'79), first appointed 

 Feb. 5, 1879. 



Minister of Public Works, David Raynal, 

 born in 1840, deputy (1876), Under-Secretary 

 of Public Works (1880), head of the same min- 

 istry in the Gambetta Cabinet (1881). 



In August M. Brun resigned on account of 

 ill-health, and was succeeded by Admiral Pey- 

 ron, Maritime Prefect of Toulon. 



In October Gen. Thibaudin handed ever his 

 portfolio to Gen. Campenon. The latter was a 

 staff officer at the time of the coup d'etat, and 

 was exiled for his republican opinions. He 

 went to Tunis and reorganized the army of the 

 Bey, but returned soon to France and served 

 in Algeria, in Italy, and in China. He was 

 Minister of War under Gambetta. 



Area and Population. The area of France is 

 528,572 square kilometres. The population" 

 returned in the census of 1881 -was 37,672,048. 

 In 34 of the 87 departments there was a de- 

 crease in population between 1876 and 1881, 

 attributed to a decline in the number of mar- 

 riages. The excess of births over deaths in 

 France amounted to 280,000 per annum be- 

 tween 1820 and 1830, falling to 51,200-between 



