TIME, STANDARD. 



sun passes such standard meridian, while the 

 minute and second shall be the same at all 

 times and for all places; that the hours of the 

 day be numbered from one to twenty-four; 

 that for special purposes, as with a view to 

 promote exactness in chronology and to facili- 

 tate synchronous observations in science, the 

 day and the time of the day, as determined by 

 the prime meridian, be employed as a kind of 

 universal time-reckoning, under the name of 

 " Cosmopolitan Time," its hours to be denoted 

 by distinct symbols (as. by the letters of the 

 alphabet), to distinguish them from the hours 

 of local time. The Government of the United 

 States recommended the calling of an interna- 

 tional conference, to perfect some scheme of 

 uniformity. The subject was again considered 

 at the seventh General Conference of the In- 

 ternational Geodetic Association, which met 

 in Rome, Oct. 16, 1883, the United States 

 being represented by Gen. Cutts, of the Coast 

 Survey. A full report was made upon it by 

 Prof. Hirsch, of the Observatory of Neufchatel, 

 Switzerland, and the Conference resolved that : 



The unification of longitudes and of hours is desira- 

 ble as well in the interest of the sciences as in that 

 of navigation, of commerce, and of international com- 

 munication ; the utility, scientifically and practically, 

 of this reform far surpasses the sacrifices in labor ana 

 changes required of a minority of civilized countries. 

 It ought, then, to be recommended to the govern- 

 ments of all countries interested, to be adopted and 

 consecrated by an international convention. 



Notwithstanding the great advantages which the gen- 

 eral introduction of the decimal division of the quad- 

 rant for geographic and geodetic co-ordination, and the 

 corresponding expressions for time, is destined to re- 

 alize, scientifically and practically, reasons eminently 

 sound appear to justify the passing by the considera- 

 tion thereof in the great measure of unification pro- 

 posed in the first resolution. -Meanwhile, to satisfy at 

 the same time important scientific considerations, the 

 Conference recommends on this occasion the extension, 

 in multiplying and perfecting the necessary tables, of 

 the application of the decimal division of the quad- 

 rant, at least for the great numerical calculations for 

 which it presents incontestable advantages, even if it 

 be desired to preserve the sexagesimal division for 

 observations, maps, navigation, etc. 



This Conference proposes to the governments to 

 -choose as initial meridian that of Greenwich, defined 

 by the middle of the pillars of the meridian instru- 

 ment of the Observatory of Greenwich, because this 

 meridian fulfills, as point of departure of longitudes, 

 all the conditions required by science, and because, 

 being already the most extensively used, it offers 

 better prospects of being generally adopted. The 

 longitude should be reckoned from the meridian of 

 Greenwich, in the sole direction of from west to east. 



This Conference recognizes the utility for certain 

 wants of science, and for the service of important 

 lines of communication, adopting a universal hour, to 

 be used together with the local or national time, which 

 will necessarily continue to be used in ordinary life. 



This Conference recommends, as the point of de- 

 parture of the universal hour and of cosmopolitan 

 date, the mean noon of Greenwich, which coincides 

 with the instant of midnight or with the beginning of 

 the civil day, under the meridian situated at 12 hours 

 or 180 from Greenwich, the universal hours to be 

 counted from zero to 24. 



It is desirable that those countries which, in order 

 to adhere to the unification of longitudes and of 

 hours, have to change their meridian, should intro- 

 duce the new system of longitudes as early as possi- 



TONQUIN. 



763 



blem their ofiicial ephemerides and almanacs, in their 

 geodetic, topographic, and hydrographic works, and 

 into their new maps. It would be advisable, in new 

 editions of old maps, to inscribe alongside the num- 

 bers of the old meridian what it would be according 

 to the new system. Then the new system should be 

 introduced without delay into the schools. 



The Conference hopes that, if the whole world is 

 agreed upon the unification of longitudes and hours 

 in accepting the Greenwich meridian as the point of 

 departure, Great Britain will find in this fact an ad- 

 ditional motive to take on her side new steps in favor 

 of the unification of weights and measures, by joining 

 the Metrical Convention of May 20, 1875. 



These resolutions will be made known to the gov- 

 ernments and recommended to their favorable consid- 

 eration, with an expression of the wish of this Con- 

 ference that an international convention, consecrating 

 the unification of longitudes and hours, may be con- 

 cluded as early as possible by means of a special 

 conference. 



TONQUIN, the most populous province of the 

 kingdom of Anam, with which it was incor- 

 porated in 1802. Anam is an absolute mon- 

 archy. The total area is about 440,500 square 

 kilometres; the total population about 21,000,- 

 000, exclusive of the tributary states of the 

 Laos and the independent Moi tribes. The 

 residence of the King is Hue, which has 50,- 

 000 inhabitants. ' Tonquin has a population of 

 15,000,000. The capital is Hanoi, containing 

 150,000 inhabitants, of whom 3,000 are Chi- 

 nese. The mass of the people worship tutelary 

 gods. The majority of the educated class fol- 

 low the doctrines of Confucius. The Christian 

 religion is professed by about 420,000 persons, 

 under six Catholic bishops. The Anamese 

 army musters about 150,000 men. The total 

 commerce of the port of Haiphong in 1881 

 amounted to 2,171,428 taels. The principal 

 exports are silk, lac, tin, medicinal drugs, cot- 

 ton, mushrooms, and anise-seed oil. The trade 

 is chiefly in the hands of the Chinese. The 

 French possessions in Farther India consist of 

 the six provinces of Lower Cochin-China, ceded 

 to France in 1862 and 1867, and containing 1,- 

 597,013 inhabitants in 1880. 



Historical Review. The political and military 

 power of France in Farther India dates from 

 before the Revolution. A French force landed 

 in 1789, by the aid of which, after a ten years' 

 war, Nguyen Anh, or Giacong, established him- 

 self upon the throne. This Emperor did not 

 acknowledge the suzerainty of China, of which 

 four centuries before Anam, with Cochin-Chi- 

 na and Tonquin, had formed an integral part. 

 His son and successor paid homage to the 

 Emperor of China in order to escape through 

 his protection the tutelage of the missionary 

 priests, who were the officious vehicles of 

 French domination. In 1825 he refused to re- 

 ceive a French embassy. Tonquin, which was 

 incorporated in the new empire of Anarn, but 

 chafed under the foreign rule, welcomed the 

 missionaries because they were obnoxious to 

 the Emperor. This was the occasion of a long 

 and cruel persecution of the missionaries by 

 the Anamite authorities. The horrors only 

 ceased upon the death of the tyrant in 1841. 

 His successor, Thieutri, was disposed to repeat 



