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TURKEY. 



published the same year, and a German trans- 

 lation in 1858. Other contributions to Russian 

 magazines, tales, dramas, and critical essays, 

 with an occasional article in the Revue des deux 

 mondes, were published during this period. In 

 1852 TurgeniefF drew upon himself the ven- 

 geance of the bureaucracy by uttering some 

 sharp, but not illegal, strictures on Russian 

 officialism, in a notice of Gogol, after the lat- 

 ter's death. For this he was deprived of his 

 office, thrown into prison, and then banished 

 to his estate in the distant Government of 

 Orel. After this decree was canceled, through 

 the intercession of the Grand Duke Alexander, 

 afterward Alexander II, in 1854, he lived 

 most of the time abroad, first in Baden-Baden, 

 and then in Paris. In 1859 appeared " A Nest 

 of Nobles," a novel, which attracted much at- 

 tention. The next novel, "Fathers and Sons" 

 (1862), created a sensation such as had never 

 before been stirred up in Russia by a literary 

 production. It depicted, in artistic contrast 

 and with realistic candor, the conservative and 

 the radical phases of political life in Russia. 

 Both schools were indignant at his analysis of 

 their feelings and motives, most of all the hold- 

 ers of advanced opinions akin to his own. The 

 epithet "Nihilist," which he attached to the 

 materialistic and revolutionary tendencies, was 

 accepted by the party of action and caught up 

 by the Government, which applied it to all 

 democratic and socialistic aims. This work 

 was translated into English by Eugene Schuy- 

 ler. It was succeeded by " Smoke " (1867), in 

 which the author's own views of the future of 

 Russia were expounded. This widened the 

 breach made between him and the school of 

 thought with which he most sympathized by 

 his objective delineations. His friend Nek- 

 rassoff, editor of the " Contemporary Review," 

 was alienated, and the students of Russia 

 turned against him. While he was branded 

 as a renegade by his own party at home, the 

 admirers of his genius multiplied in France, 

 Germany, and the English-speaking countries. 

 In purity of style, as welj as in the power of 

 exploring the human soul and touching the 

 springs of sentiment and action, and in minute- 

 ness of observation and circumstantial natu- 

 ralism, he resembled Balzac, with a satirical 

 quality added, recalling the incisive humor of 

 Thackeray. His principal subsequent work 

 (1877) described the life and activities of the 

 secret revolutionary party. It was translated 

 into English under the title "Virgin Soil." 

 Though he was denounced as a reactionist by 

 the Liberals of Russia, the Nihilists claimed 

 him as a friend and sympathizer. In the later 

 years of his life public opinion turned again 

 in his favor. His sorrow at being misunder- 

 stood and deserted by his former friends, and 

 the intensity of his patriotism, are revealed in 

 the poems in prose, published under the title 

 of "Senilia" (1883). His last novel, "Clara 

 Militch," is a mystical romance of an original 

 stamp. A collection of his earlier novels and 



tales was issued in 1856, and a complete col- 

 lection of his writings appeared in 1865, at 

 Carlsruhe, and was reprinted in several edi- 

 tions at Moscow. 



TURKEY, an empire in Europe and Asia, 

 The fundamental laws are derived from the 

 precepts of the Koran and the Multeka. When 

 not in conflict with the sacred Mohammed at 

 laws the will of the Sultan is absolute. The 

 Constitution proclaimed by Abdul-Hamid, 

 Dec. 23, 1876, is modeled upon European 

 forms of government; but, like the previous 

 Constitution of Sultan Abdul-Medjid, it has 

 not been carried into effect. The reigning 

 Sultan is Abdul-Hamid II, born Sept. 22, 1842, 

 who succeeded to the throne upon the deposi- 

 tion of his brother Murad, Aug. 31, 1876. 



The executive and legislative authority is ex- 

 ercised under the Sultan by the Grand Vizier, 

 who is the head of the temporal government, 

 and the Sheik-ul-Islam, who is the chief inter- 

 preter of the Koran and head of the TJlema, or 

 council summoned to expound the laws. 



The Grand Vizier and President of the 

 Council of Ministers is Said Pasha; the Sheik- 

 ul-Islam, Ahmed Essad Effend.i. 



Area and Population. The Treaty of Berlin re- 

 duced the area of the dominions under the rule 

 of the Sultan in Europe from 138,264 to 56,- 

 868 square miles, and the population from 8,- 

 315,000 to 3,982,000. The area and estimated 

 population of the divisions of the Ottoman Em- 

 pire, including the vassal and tributary states, 

 are as follow : 



GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISIONS. 



Europe : 



Immediate possessions 



Eastern Roumelia 



hosnia, Herzegovina, and Novi- 



Bazar 



Bulgaria 



Total Europe 



Asia. 



Africa: 

 Tripoli. 

 Egypt. 



Total Africa 



Total Turkish Empire 



(53,850 

 13,500 



23,570 



Population 



4,900,000 

 815,951 



1,826.440 



115.289 8,631,400 

 16,172,000 



The population of Constantinople is between 

 600,000 and 700,000. 



Fully half the population of Turkey in Eu- 

 rope, about 174- per cent, of the population in 

 Asia, and about 23 per cent, of the total popu- 

 lation of the empire, are Christians of the vari- 

 ous Oriental and Occidental rites, and Jews. 



Commerce. The total imports in the year 

 1878-'79 are reported as amounting to 1,969,- 

 498,742 piasters (1 piaster = 4'3 cents), the 

 exports as 839,586,490 piasters ; the imports of 

 1879-'80 as 1,931,403,524 piasters, the exports 

 as 863,209,246 piasters. The year 1880-'81 

 was unfortunate in every respect. The major- 

 ity of the farming population did not produce 



