APPENDIX B. 609 



Theophilus was a Monk and the author of a most illuminating work, largely upon 

 working metal and its decoration for ecclesiastical purposes. An excellent translation, with 

 the Latin text, was published by Robert Hendrie, London, 1847, under the title " An Essay 

 upon various Arts, in three books, by Theophilus, called also Rugerus, Priest and Monk," 

 Hendrie, for many sufficient reasons, places the period of Theophilus as the latter half of the 

 lith century. The work is mainly devoted to preparing pigments, making glass, and working 

 metals, and their conversion into ecclesiastical paraphernalia, such as mural decoration, 

 pictures, windows, chalices, censers, bells, organs, etc. However, he incidentally describes 

 the making of metallurgical furnaces, cupellation, parting gold and silver by cementation 

 with salt, and by melting with sulphur, the smelting of copper, hquating lead from it, and the 

 refining of copper under a blast with poling. 



Geber was until recent years considered to be an Arab alchemist of a period somewhere 

 between the 7th and 12th centuries. A mere bibliography of the very considerable literature 

 which exists in discussion of who, where, and at what time the author was, would fill pages. 

 Those who are interested may obtain a start upon such references from Hermann Kopp's Bei- 

 trdge zur Geschichte der Chemie, Braunschweig, 1875, and in John Ferguson's Bibliotheca Chemica, 

 Glasgow, 1906. Berthelot, in his Chimie au Moyen Age, Paris, 1893, considers the works under 

 the name of Geber were not in the main of Arabic origin, but composed by some Latin scholar 

 in the 13th century. In any event, certain works were, under this name, printed in Latin as 

 early as 1470-80, and have passed innumerable editions since. They were hrst translated into 

 English by Richard Russell, London, 1678, and we have relied upon this and the Nuremberg 

 edition in Latin of 1541. This work, even assuming Berthelot's view, is one of the most 

 important in the history of chemistry and metallurgy, and is characterised by a directness 

 of statement unique among alchemists. The making of the mineral acids — certamly nitric and 

 aqua regia, and perhaps hydrochloric and sulphuric — are here first described. The author 

 was famihar with saltpetre, sal-ammoniac, and alkah, and with the acids he prepared many 

 salts for the first time. He was familiar with amalgamation, cupellation, the separation of 

 gold and silver by cementation with salt and by nitric acid. His views on the primary com- 

 position of bodies dominated the alchemistic world for centuries. He contended that all 

 metals were composed of " spiritual " sulphur (or arsenic, which he seems to consider a special 

 form of sulphur) and quicksilver, varying proportions and qualities yielding different metals. 

 The more the quicksilver, the more " perfect " the metal. 



Albertus Magnus (Albert von BoUstadt) was a Dominican Monk, afterwards Bishop, 

 born about 1205, and died about 1280. He was rated the most learned man of his time, and 

 evidence of his literary activities lies in the complete edition of his works issued by Pierre 

 Jammy, Lyons, 1651, which comprises 21 foho volumes. However, there is little doubt that 

 a great number of works attributed to him, especially upon alchemy, are spurious. He 

 covered a wide range of theology, logic, alchemy, and natural science, and of the latter the 

 following works which concern our subject are considered genuine : — De Rebus Metallicis et 

 Mineralibus, De Generatione et Corruptione, and De Meteoris. They are httle more than 

 compilations and expositions of the classics muddled with the writings of the Arabs, and in 

 general an attempt to conciliate the Peripatetic and Alchemistic schools. His position in the 

 history of science has been greatly over-estimated. However, his mineralogy is, except for 

 books on gems, the only writing of any consequence at all on the subject between Pliny and 

 Agricola, and while there are but two or three minerals mentioned which are not to be found 

 in the ancient authors, this work, nevertheless, deserves some place in the history of science, 

 especially as some attempt at classification is made. Agricola devotes some thousands of 

 words to the refutation of his " errors." 



Roger Bacon (1214-1294) was a Franciscan Friar, a lecturer at Oxford, and a man of 

 considerable scientific attainments for his time. He was the author of a large number of 

 mathematical, philosophical, and alchemistic treatises. The latter are of some importance 

 in the history of chemistry, but have only minute bearing upon metallurgy, and this chiefly 

 as being one of the earliest to mention saltpetre. 



Basil Valentine is the reputed author of a number of alchemistic works, of which none 

 appeared in print until early in the 17th century. Internal evidence seems to indicate that 

 the " Triumphant Chariot of Antimony" is the only one which may possibly be authentic, 

 and could not have been written prior to the end of the 15th or early i6th century, although 

 it has been variously placed as early as 1350. To this work has been accredited the first 

 mention of sulphuric and hydrochloric acid, the separation of gold and silver by the use of 

 antimony (sulphide), the reduction of the antimony sulphide to the metal, the extraction of 

 copper by the precipitation of the sulphate with iron, and the discovery of various antimonial 

 salts. At the time of the publication of works ascribed to Valentine practically all these 

 things were well known, and had been previously described. We are, therefore, in much doubt 

 as to whether this author really deserves any notice in the history of metallurgy. 



EARLY i6th CENTURY WORKS. During the i6th, century, and prior to De Re 

 Metallica, there are only three works of importance from the point of view of mining tech- 

 nology—the Nutzlich Bergbuchlin, the Probierbuchlein, and Biringuccio's De La Pirotechnia. 

 There are also some minor works by the alchemists of some interest for isolated statements, 

 particularly those of Paracelsus. The three works mentioned, however, represent such a 



