1 8 INTRODUCTION. 



or to the inner or outer surface of a portion of the body ; in this connection it is frequently better 

 to substitute the word superficial for external, and deep for internal. Above and below, like 

 all other designations, refer to the erect position of the body, and this direction may be frequently 

 better indicated by the terms cranial and caudal. In front and behind refer to the anterior 

 and posterior surface of the body, but this relation may be more accurately expressed by ventral 

 and dorsal. 



Special additional designations are to a certain extent necessary for the extremities. In 

 this connection, proximal means nearer to the trunk and distal more remote. In the forearm 

 it is preferable to use the words radial and ulnar instead of outer and inner, since during prona- 

 tion (see page 123) the inner side is directed outward and vice versa; and since the palm of 

 the hand and the sole of the foot are designated respectively as the volar and plantar surfaces, 

 the words volar and plantar are used to indicate the position of parts situated upon the corre- 

 sponding surfaces. 



