INSTITUTIONS, DEGREES, ETC. 377 



II. Degrees, Diplomas, and Certificates for work done in the 

 Universities. 



III. Admission to the Universities. 



IV. Credit allowable for Equivalent Degrees in Foreign In- 

 stitutions. 



I. ORGANIZATION OF THE VARIOUS INSTITUTIONS OF 

 HIGHER LEARNING 



Classes oj Institutions. All institutions of higher learning in 

 France may be divided into three great groups, based on the general 

 principles of their inner organization: 



I. The National Universities, under the general administra- 

 tion of the Minister of Public Instruction, which prepare for and 

 confer the main degrees required in France for the practice of the 

 learned professions; 



II. ( i ) Other National Schools, under the general direction of the 

 Ministry of Public Instruction or other ministries and administra- 

 tions, which are either devoted primarily to pure research or pre- 

 pare for the various lines of specialization in the government 

 services; 



(2) Independent Institutions, established through private initia- 

 tive and supported by private gifts and endowments; the scope 

 and variety of the activities of these independent schools is almost 

 unlimited. 



I. THE UNIVERSITIES. 



There are sixteen French Universities, scattered throughout 

 France, each having its seat in the city which is at the same time 

 the official center of an "Academic." These "Academies" are 

 administrative districts, into which are grouped, for the organiza- 

 tion and direction of education, several " departements " under the 

 direction of a "Recteur." 



The sixteen French Universities are, besides Paris, the Univer- 

 sities of Aix-Mar settle, Alger, Besanqon, Bordeaux, Caen, Clermont- 

 Ferrand, Dijon, Grenoble, Lille, Lyon, Montpellier, Nancy, Poitiers, 

 Rennes, Toulouse. 



These Universities have for the most part had a long and 

 glorious past; some of them, as the Universities of Paris and Mont- 

 pellier, are among the oldest in the world. On the other hand, the 



