Azotes, iv. 10 — 1 1;^ 241 



of a ruminant. The astragali of sheep furnish the hucklebones with which children play 

 at the present day. " There is a game also," says an old writer, " that is played with the 

 pasteme bone in the hynder foote of a sheepe, oxe, gote, fallowe or redde dere, which in 

 Latin is called Talus" {Brand, Pop. Ant. ii. 288). A. describes the astragalus as a short 

 biconvex bone adapted to the concavities of the bones above and below, found only in 

 the hind-leg ; and this only of animals with cloven hoofs, with the exception of the 

 Indian ass, the hippopotamus, the lynx, and, according to some, the lion. The bone, he 

 says, stands upright in the joint, and has certain projections above. Of the four faces 

 marked in dice with figures, the face which takes the highest figure is turned inwards, 

 so as to front the corresponding face in the other astragalus, while that marked ace is 

 turned outwards. Cf. H. A. ii. i, 34. 



45. I suppose he means that, if there were an astragalus, there would be much earthy 

 matter ; and, if much earthy matter, then the hoof would be a solid mass ; excepting in 

 that part of its breadth, where the earthy matter was used up in making the astragalus. 



46. " L'homme a les pieds plus larges, et il peut les ecarter I'un de I'autre plus que les 

 autres animaux .... La grandeur de la surface du pied de l'homme tient a ce qu'il 

 appuye le tarse, le metatarse et tons les doigts a terre, ce qu'aucun animal ne fait aussi 

 parfaitement " {Cuvier, Lefons, i. 474). 



47. Cf. iii. 9, 4, where the same is said as to kidne3rs. 



(Ch. 11.) L That is all the Mammalia known to him, with the exception of Cetacea. 



2. De Anim. Incessu, 8, I. See also iv. 13, 10, where the explanation is repeated. 



3. Reptiles and Amphibia are comprised by A. in one group. The main characters 

 ascribed by him to them are these. They are sanguineous animals, and, with the 

 exception of the apodous serpents, four-footed and polydactylous {H. A. ii. 10, 2) ; 

 they are also oviparous, with the exception of the viper, which is ovoviviparous {H. A. 

 iii. I, 28). In virtue of these characters they are called "oviparous quadrupeds." 



The sexes are always separate. The ovum is perfect, i.e. does not increase in size after 

 deposition (Z). G. ii. I, 18 ; iii. 5, 6 ; Introd. p. xxvii), and has distinct yelk and white 

 (Z>. G. iii. 2, 12). The embryo has two foetal appendages (iv. 12, Note 15), viz. umbilical 

 vesicle and dlantois. The testes, when present, are internal, but are absent in the 

 apodous kinds {H. A.w. $, T ; D. G. i. 3, 2). The generative outlet is one with the 

 anus {H. A. v. 5, 8). The females are usually larger than the males {D. G. i. 16, 3). 

 Refrigeration is effected by a lung, of bladder-like character (iii. 5, 6), the entrance to 

 which is not guarded by an epiglottis (iii. 3, 10). In all these characters they resemble 

 birds. 



The body is neither feathered nor hairy, but covered with scales, which are harder than 

 those of fishes (iv. 1 1, 7). A tongue is always present (see Note 5) and often is bifid. 

 The teeth are always of the serrate form (iv. 11, 6). The stomach is single (iv. i, 4). 



Such exceptions as the absence of scales from frogs and other Amphibia, or of teeth 

 from Chelonia, etc., though not mentioned by A., can hardly have been unknown to 

 him. The only distinct subdivision of the group recognised by him appears to be into 

 Tetrapoda and Apoda. 



4. Cf. iv. 10, 3-5. 



6. There are, as a matter of fact, some oviparous quadrupeds without a tongue ; but 

 these are species which were unknown to Aristotle, such as the Carinthian Proteus, the 

 Surinam Pipa, and the Dactylethra of South Africa. The crocodile really has a tongue ; 

 but it is flat, destitute of papillae, and united by its whole extent to the floor of the 

 mouth. This seems to be recognized in other passages {H. A. ii. lo, 2 ; D. P. ii. 17, 7). 

 Cf. ii. 17, Note 9. 



16 



