24 BIOLOGY AND ITS MAKERS 



the second century of the Christian era. He was a man of 

 much talent, both as an observer and as a writer. His de- 

 scriptions were clear and forceful, and for twelve centuries 

 his works exerted the greatest influence of those of all scien- 

 tiiic writers. In his writings was gathered all the anatomical 

 knowledge of his predecessors, to which he had added ob- 

 servations of his own. He was a man of originality, but not 

 having the human body for dissection, he erred in expounding 

 its structure "on the faith of observations made on lower 

 animals." He used the right method in arriving at his facts. 

 Huxley says: "No one can read Galen's works without being 

 impressed with the marvelous extent and diversity of his 

 knowledge, and by his clear grasp of those experimental 

 methods by which alone physiology can be advanced." 



Anatomy in the Middle Ages. — But now we shall see how 

 the arrest of inquiry already spoken of operated in the field 

 of anatomv. The condition of anatom\' in the Middle Acres 

 was the condition of all science in the same period. From 

 its practical importance anatomy had to be taught to medical 

 men, while physics and chemistry, biology and comparative 

 anatomy remained in an undeveloped state. The way in 

 which this science was taught is a feature which characterizes 

 the intellectual life of the Middle Ages. Instead of having 

 anatomy taught by observations, the writings of Galen were 

 expounded from the desk, frequently without demonstrations 

 of any kind. Thus his work came to be set up as the one 

 unfailing authority on anatomical knowledge. This was in 

 accord with the dominant ecclesiastical influence of the time. 

 Reference to authority w^as the method of the theologians, 

 and by analogy it became the method of all learning. As 

 the Scriptures Vv-ere accepted as the unfailing guide to spir- 

 itual truth, so Galen and other ancient writers were made 

 the guides to scientific truth and thouc^ht. The baneful 

 effects of this in stifling inquiry and in reducing knowledge 



