38 Chapter I. 



instincts, which, corresponding to their organic poly- 

 morphism, are different in different classes (castes) 

 of the state. As regards the application of the sensile 

 experiences and affections of individuals, there exists 

 within the range of these classes a very great inde- 

 pendence and variableness of individual action, which 

 with several ant species, e. g., the sanguine slavemaker 

 (F. sanguinea) , is scarcely inferior to that observed 

 amongst higher Vertebrates. Besides, the perfection 

 of social co-operation of higher mammals is far from 

 equaling that of ants; for with the latter it extends 

 not only to protection, defense and hunting, but also 

 to construction of their dwellings, to the rearing of the 

 young, and to the support of all the '^members of the 

 state" by comparatively few individuals, going by turns 

 in quest of food and supplying the community with 

 provisions. Nothing of the kind is known of apes or 

 other higher animals. The providing of food in par- 

 ticular varies greatly with the different kinds of ants : 

 it embraces "cattle herding" (the keeping of aphides), 

 hunting (robbing of insects, in particular, robbing of 

 the pupae of other ants), agriculture (grain gathering 

 ants), horticulture (ants raising fungi), etc. Nor are 

 the military expeditions of several ant species under- 

 taken merely from want of food, but also for the sake 

 of making slaves, the ravished pupae of workers of 

 other ant species being reared as members of their 

 own state. Through this suitable incorporation of 

 outsiders into their own colony the community life of 

 ants in the ''mixed colonies" reaches a quasi-intelligent 

 universality, which is vainly sought for among higher 

 animals. The same universality is manifested also by 



