4 Introduction. 



degree of perfection in their social instincts, and that 

 thereby the higher animal was gradually transformed 

 into man. 



The tenability of this assumption will be discussed 

 in the following chapters. It is understood, that in our 

 comparative investigation, we shall be guided, not by 

 the postulates of evolutionist theories, but by the prin- 

 ciples of critical psychology, set forth at length in our 

 former essay, "Instinct and Intelligence in the Animal 

 Kingdom" (Herder, St. Louis, Mo., 1903). 



Lately there has been invented a theory on the 

 psychic life of ants, which is diametrically opposed 

 to the popular attempts at humanization. Alb. Bethe^ 

 has tried to set down ants and bees as mere ''reflex 

 machines," devoid even of the simplest sensitive per- 

 ception and cognition, whilst he considers the intelli- 

 gence of higher animals to be beyond all doubt. Thus 

 he hoped to succeed in destroying the parallelism 

 established by us between the psychic faculties of ants 

 and those of higher animals, from which we had 

 drawn the conclusion : we do not need ant intelligence, 

 therefore neither animal intelligence. Bethe's work is 

 of undoubted value on account of its attack on the still 

 wide-spread popular views regarding ants as intelli- 

 gent, human beings in miniature.^ His theory has 



1) "Duerfen wir den Ameisen und Bienen psychische Qualitaeten 

 zuschreiben?" Bonn, 1898. ("Archiv fuer die gesamte Physiologle," 

 LXX, 15-100.) 



2) In this regard the "Betrachtungen ueber die staatlich lebenden 

 Immen," published against Bethe's essay by Charles Sajo in 

 "Prometheus" (10 Jahrg., 1899, Nr. 486 and 487), go far beyond what 

 is admissible. Similarly the essay by Kienitz-Gerloff, "Besitzen die 

 Ameisen Intelligenz?" in "Naturwissenschaftl, Wochenschrift" (XIV, 

 1899, n. 20 and 21). 



