Chap, ii.] from Cesalpino to Linnaeus. 65 



stood in the way of such a profound study of the principles of 

 systematic botany as might have led to enduring results, and 

 even destroyed the very capacity for those difficult intellectual 

 operations, which were absolutely necessary to build up a truly 

 natural system on scientific foundations ; the wood could not 

 be seen for the trees. Above all the morphology founded by 

 Jung, though acknowledged and employed, was not suffi- 

 ciently developed by the labours of others to form the 

 foundation of the system in its grander features, — a reproach 

 which must be made against the systematists of the succeeding 

 hundred years with few exceptions. How could the botanists 

 of the 17th century succeed in acquiring a true conception of 

 the larger groups indicated by natural affinity, when they still 

 held to the old division into trees and herbs, which Jung 

 had already set aside and which is opposed to all consistent 

 morphology, and when they paid so little attention to the 

 structure of the seed and the fruit, that they commonly treated 

 dry indehiscent fruits as naked seeds, and were guilty of other 

 and similar mistakes ? But if nothing new and good in prin- 

 ciple found its way into systematic botany, much service was 

 rendered to it in matters of detail. The working out of various 

 systems helped to show what marks are not admissible in 

 fixing the limits of the natural groups; the contradiction 

 between the method and aim of the systematists became in 

 this empirical way continually more apparent, till at length 

 Linnaeus was able to recognise it distinctly; and this was 

 beyond doubt a great gain. 



To attempt to give an account of all the systematists of 

 England, France, Italy, Germany, and the Netherlands during 

 this period would serve only to obscure the subject ; all that is 

 historically important will be brought out more clearly by 

 mentioning those only who have really enriched systematic 

 botany. Whoever wishes for a more complete knowledge of 

 all the systems which made their appearance before Linnaeus 

 will find a masterly account of them in his ' Classes Plantarum/ 



