174 



D. R. CLINE, C. WENTWORTH, AND T. W. BARRY 



In its 17 March 1975 issue, Time magazine 

 reported battalions of observers from all over 

 the country flocking to Salisbury, Massachu- 

 setts, armed with telescopes, cameras 

 dwarfed by huge telephoto lenses, sketch 

 pads, and binoculars. There, 1,500 strong the 

 first weekend alone, they took up vigil along 

 the seawall of the Merrimack River. A local 

 businessman circulated among the chilly bird- 

 watchers with free coffee and hot chocolate, 

 while handing out a pamphlet advertising his 

 restaurant. 



The cause of the commotion was the appear- 

 ance of a single, unassuming, pigeon-like sea- 

 bird called a Ross' gull (Rhodostethia rosed), 

 almost never seen south of the Arctic Circle 

 and never before in the contiguous 48 States. 

 Time stated that "for those who care about 

 such matters the event was as electrifying as 

 the descent of a Martian spaceship." 



Meanwhile, far above the Arctic Circle at 

 Point Barrow on the Arctic Ocean, Eskimo 

 hunters probably puzzled at the strange ways 

 of the white "birdmen," as they recalled the 

 savory dishes Ross' gulls provided many of 

 them during the previous fall hunting season. 

 This particular gull is considered a delicacy by 

 the Eskimos, and the birds are actively 

 sought each year as they fly near shore during 

 their fall wanderings from Asian breeding 

 grounds. 



Perhaps this dichotomy of people's in- 

 terests in a single species is indicative of the 

 broad spectrum of social and economic values 

 man derives from marine birds. Perhaps, too, 

 it represents the challenge that wildlife pro- 

 fessionals, administrators, and citizen conser- 

 vation leaders face in today's complex world 

 in striving to sort out priorities in allocation 

 of such common property (amenity) resources 

 among beneficial users. 



As with the Ross' gull, socioeconomic 

 values of marine birds involve both consump- 

 tive and nonconsumptive uses. Consumptive 

 uses may provide socioeconomic values in the 

 form of meat, eggs, oil, feathers, down, and 

 guano. Cultural and recreational benefits may 

 also be involved. Nonconsumptive uses bene- 

 fit the tourist and recreation industries as 

 well as providing less tangible social values, 

 such as esthetic appreciation and environ- 

 mental education and scientific study op- 

 portunities. 



In this paper we examine some social and 

 economic indicators that are believed to 

 demonstrate people's growing awareness and 

 interest in marine birds. These indicators in- 

 volve a broad spectrum of values and illus- 

 trate the critical need for adoption of a strong 

 North American marine bird conservation 

 program. 



Historical Perspective 



Since earliest times, marine birds have ac- 

 companied the evolution of human societies in 

 coastal and insular environments of the 

 world. Their social value is in part recorded in 

 kitchen middens of ancient campsites and 

 villages. From the time man first inhabited 

 the seacoasts and ventured out in ships, the 

 company of seabirds has added life and in- 

 spiration to what otherwise would be a bleak 

 and desolate landscape. Fishermen long ago 

 learned to use seabirds to show them where 

 the rich fishing grounds were located, and the 

 cries of birds were often used to guide 

 mariners away from dangerous cliffs during 

 foggy weather. 



At the time of the first contact with Euro- 

 peans, native peoples of arctic Canada and 

 Alaska reportedly took birds with bolas, 

 snares, spears, arrows, and nets; they herded 

 flightless waterfowl and gathered eggs as 

 well. Brandt (1943) said that Alaskan 

 Eskimos would have been destitute if eiders 

 (Somateria spp.) had not been available for 

 food and clothing, and Ekblaw (1928) believed 

 the dovekie (Plautus alle) saved the polar 

 Eskimo from extinction. 



Marine birds have often served as an emer- 

 gency food supply for explorers, sailors, and 

 others: according to Tuck (1960) "The ac- 

 counts of early arctic explorers and marooned 

 whalers describe many instances in which 

 starvation was averted by eating murres" 

 (Uria spp.). One burrowing petrel of Australia 

 was given the title "the bird of providence" 

 because it saved the lives of shipwrecked 

 mariners and convicts when supply ships 

 from Sydney failed to reach them between 

 March and August of 1790 (Serventy 1958). 



Marine birds have also been taken because 

 of the economic values of their feathers and 

 oil. When economic overutilization has oc- 



