33 



limbs turn, and by which they are enabled to throw forward the -whole 

 weight of the animal. The remaining- vertebrae are of the caudal, 

 usually fifteen, more or less. The most prominent feature in each dorsal 

 vertebrae is the strong spinous process on its tipper surface, these are 

 largely developed on the anterior portion of the dorsal series, and pro- 

 duce the elevation above the shoulder called the withers. They are of 

 importance, because they afford a large surface for the attachment of 

 t he ligament, which supports the head and neck. Altogether they form 

 the ridge of the back. On each side of the vertebrae transverse pro- 

 cesses are situated, articulating with the ribs, and the smaller oblique 

 projections serve to unite one vertebrae to the other. The spinalcolumn 

 has considerable flexibility as well as very great strength. Besides 

 there are also ligaments along the broad under surface of the vertebrae, 

 others again between the transverse processes, and similiar strengthen- 

 ing ties, uniting the upright projections or spinous processes; the 

 whole tnass forming a marvel of strength, lightness, and flexibility. 



The ribs are jointed to the transverse processes of the vertebrae and 

 curve with some variations in their outline and direction, down to- 

 wards the sternum or breast bone, to which the first eight or nine of 

 them, called the true ribs, are attached by their extremities, which, to 

 provide the elasticity, necessary for the expansion of the chest, are 

 composed of cartilage. The remaining ribs are termed false ribs, as 

 they have no individual connection with the breastbone ; they are how- 

 ever, united together by cartilage, each on its own side, and thus the 

 cartilaginous union ultimately terminates in the sternum ; so that the 

 whole of the ribs are enabled to act in uniformity. The sternum in the 

 young horse consists of six bones, which become united into a single 

 piece in the full grown animal. The front of this bone is convex and 

 sharply keeled, its upper extremity projecting, so as to be easily observ- 

 ed in the living horse. This is known as the point of the breast and its 

 place will be easily ascertained, when it is remembered, that the lowest 

 part of the collar just covers it. The haunch or pelvis is in reality 

 made up of six bones, three on each side, the whole firmly united into 

 one. Of these the ilium, is the most important; lateral prolongations of 

 the ilium produce the prominences so conspicuous just above and in front 

 of the hind quarters in every horse. The ischium is a backward con- 

 tinuation of the ilium and bears a considerable tuberosity, -which pro- 

 jects on each side a little below the tail. The pubis, apparently a single 

 bone, is connected with those already mentioned, and forms an inverted 

 arch with them below 



The front leg is united to the body of the horse, by means of the 

 shoulder or scapula (V), which has a flattened and long triangular shape. 

 It is strengthened by a ridge or crest, dividing it lengthwise into two 

 somewhat unequal portions. The scapula rests on the ribs and is unit- 

 ed to the body solely by muscles. 



The humerus (/), is a short and somewhat twisted bone, articulat- 

 ing by a rounded head with the glenoid or cup shaped cavity at the 



