[ 8 ] 



tried to get over the difficulty by means of verbal 

 subtleties. 



The dogmatic assertions of these various schools 

 naturally provoked a reaction, and several forms ol 

 the reaction are grouped together under the designa- 

 tion " Scepticism." The first sceptic who gave his 

 name to a school was Pyrrho (360-270 B.C.), but as 

 he confined himself to a denial of the possibility of 

 any knowledge whatever, and held that no one 

 assertion is more true than another (ovSev /itaXXoz/), he 

 would not require notice here but for his connection 

 with the later sceptics of the Academy. These 

 philosophers asserted, with Pyrrho, that knowledge 

 of truth is impossible, but they went on to admit that 

 there are various degrees of probability. According 

 to Carneades (213-129 B.C.) an idea is probable 

 (TTiOavr)) when our impression of its truthfulness is 

 derived simply from the idea itself. It is probable 

 and undisputed (triOavr) KCLI aTre^iWacrro?) when the 

 impression is confirmed by the agreement of related 

 ideas. It is probable, undisputed and tested (7ri6avij 

 Kai ajrepio-Trao-Tos /cai Trepr^ev^evrj^ when a careful 

 investigation of all related ideas bears out the same 

 conclusion. This substitution of probability for truth 

 has been repeated in modern times ; it appears, how- 

 ever, to be a rather clumsy device for emphasising 

 that which is fully expressed by the simple statement 

 of the relativity of knowledge. 



There is no record of any further attempt to find 



