420 ( 
Universal unmeaning truism ; and the predicate is generally a 
Grammar. different word from the pet sae In this act we 
—Y~" ‘neither assert the subject to be the same, nor’ to be 
The ulti- something else. The office of assertion consists in 
mate effect pointing out a relation betwixt the subject and some 
of assertion. Other idea. The word “gold” has one meaning, and 
the word “metal” has a different one. -When we 
say “gold is a metal,”’? we do not intend to say 
that the words “gold” and “ metal’? have the same 
meaning, but that the qualities expressed by the word 
* metal,’’ are connected with the object called “ gold.” 
When we say “ sugar is sweet,” “ wormwood is bitter,” 
our intention is to produce in the mind of the person 
addressed a connection betwixt the ideas which have 
been previously attached to the word “ sugar,” and 
the further idea of “sweetness,” and betwixt the ideas 
attached to “‘ wormwood,” and the idea of “ bitter- 
ness.”? Sometimes nothing may be previously known 
concerning the subject of the proposition. e may 
speak of sugar and of wormwood to a person who has 
never heard of either. In that case the terms are only 
introduced as signs requiring the person addressed to 
attach to the one of them the idea of sweetness, and 
to the other that of bitterness, as contributing to those 
compound ideas of which he may afterwards consider 
the words as significant. The idea expressed in the sub- 
ject must always be different from that expressed in the 
predicate. This is the case even though the expres- 
sions used would on a different occasion be synony- 
mous. When the sentence “ London is the capital of 
Britain” is uttered, if the hearer had any ideas about 
London, he is desired to connect with these the fur- 
ther circumstance of its being the capital of Britain : 
if he had no idea on the subject, except that Londen 
was a name written or pronounced in a certain manner, 
he is desired to connect this word as a name with those 
which form the predicate of the sentence. Sometimes, 
by a figure of speech, the same word is used for the 
subject and the predicate: for example, “ Home is 
home.” In the employment of this figure, however, it 
will be found that such a word as “ home” in these two 
situations has a different set of ideas attached to it. 
The meaning of this sentence is, «* Home, though often 
thought and spoken of with indifference, is, when made 
the subject of reflection, connected with feelings which 
interest and attach us.” x 
The sub- The substantive verb differs from verbs of motion in 
stantive being radically indicative in its character. Assertion is 
verb radi- the cause of the contrivance of it. It does not originate 
cally indi- jn the imperative mode, any further than an impera- 
waeye tive effort to command attention is implied in all lan- 
guage. The use of the substantive verb is, to direct 
the thought of a-person to the connection of one idea, 
or one assemblage of ideas, with another, and thus to 
indicate congruities, incongruities, and relations of all 
kinds. The substantive verb is employed in the im- 
Cr. conformably with the usages of other verbs. 
e say, “ be wise ;”’ “be ready to do your duty ;” 
but this imperative has always an awkwardness and 
a want of emphasis, compared to that of the. active 
yerb. An active imperative may be considered. in 
such phrases as understood. It seems an absurdity 
to desire any person or thing fo be, or ever simply to 
be connected with another object, or to be endowed 
with a particular character. The imperative radically 
implied in such sentences is a command or solicitation 
to use such evertions as tend to the production of a cer- 
tain state. Sis probus means fac ut sis probus, cause 
yourself to be good ; act in such a manner as to support 
& worthy character. i 
GRAMMAR 
The noun becomes an adjective by its.situation, 
~The liar .character ‘of. ori 
stantive verb is, to express in a separate 
general act of the mind which is common to all a 
an the indicative mood. wee fey 
The predicate of a proposition ‘may either be an ad-: 
jective mous as “ Cicero was nt 3” « Solomon ¢ 
was wise ;” or a participle, as, “ the man is walking ;” 4 
“the boy is riding.” A substantive is applied with 
equal frequency to the same use as “ Isaac is a philosos 
pher ;” « George is a king ;” “ Alexander is an emperor.” 
A connection betwixt the ideas e: by these sub- 
stantive nouns and those attached to the subjects of the 
propositions, is then asserted by means of this simple verb: 
The verb still merely serves the of a copula; 
Dr Smith infers from the generality of the character 0; 
of this verb that it must have” been the result of much this 
thought, and could have been formed only after refines 
ment in metaphysical science had made considerable 
advancement. For this inference, however, there*is 
not sufficient foundation. The acts exerted in all as- 
sertions have a character mutually similar, and are 
therefore called the same act; and nothing is more 
natural than to express the same act or similar acts by. 
the same sign. . : 
The early attempts of a child to speak are often: Supp 
made without the use of the substantive verb. He no de 
says, “ That bread-good,” instead of « that bread is ™* 
good.” He possesses the ideas of bread and of good 
ness, and, by pronouncing the one in immediate suc< 
cession to the other, he attempts to convey the ims 
pression which he has received of their mutual con- 
nection. The same mode of speaking may be sup 
posed to take place among a le whose mutual 
communications are few and ‘crudely executed. But, 
as the juxta-position of nouns may also be applied to 
other uses, a separate sign is _ ards introduced 
for indicating assertion; and’no depth of metaphysi-° 
eal knowledge is required to induee men to use the 
same sign on every similar occasion. Although some 
risk of error attends the ee exercise of re- 
tracing and analysing the progress of our mental 
peeves) and sindatvatatiaphansss) mistakes and dufi~ 
culties have been handed down from age to age, no 
hesitation or impediment occurs in the employment of 
the faculties for the common purposes of speech. The 
human mind has always proceeded without embarrass- 
ment in contriving signs for its communications, ~ 
The formation of'a general word is equally easy with 
that of a significant fe ae termination for shewing. 
that words are applied to similar uses. A termination 
expresses some point of nautual resemblance in the ap« 
plication of words, The same thing is done by a se~ 
parate word, and. a separate word may be uttered with 
equal facility. The forms, in fact, which are common 
to all other verbs are exactly synonymous with the pure 
substantive verb. All other verbs consist of the signs of 
ideas, coupled, as we have observed, with the sign of 
adjection, and the sign of assertion ; that is, the mean« 
ing of the participle with that of the copula, 
_ Secr. IV. The Neuter Verb. 
Some languages have verbs which contain the mean- Natu 
ing of an adjective and the copula condensed in one them 
word, and which have no further characteristic in the verb, 
construction of sentences than these parts of speech 
when separately ‘expressed. Perhaps this is not the 
