nature of the adverb, are sufficiently app: The 
imply a notifica xan Bes the ch Rae tog 
pound word is to be annexed in syntax, not to a sub- 
o— noun, but to an adjective ora verb. They are 
Sy papas of being attached ay other menoeieas as 
very nobly,”” “surprisingly well,” “ too uniformly.” 
. The adverbs just mentioned are called sheaths of 
manner. Some of them merely express a general refe- 
-rence, and have the same relation to the words called 
demonstrative pronouns which ethers have to different 
adjectives. Such are the adverbs << thus,’’ “ so,” and 
** as.” In Lancashire, instead of * thus” and “ so,” itis 
common to say ‘i’ this’n,” and “ i’ that’n.” 
“hs eee well oadjocivel Such 
= hese tr 2 een and “ thrice,” These belong to 
cardinal numbers, as expressin ition. There 
are also adverbs which signify crenelaienae to repe- 
tition, such as “ first,” “ secondly,” and “ thirdly,” 
and belong to the ordinal. 
'. There are adverbs of local situation, as “ here,’ 
there ;” and of local aspect, as <« hence,” ‘* thence,” 
** hither,” “ thither,’? “ upward,” ‘ forward.” 
Adverbs of time, as “ now,” “ formerly,” “ soon,” 
-“ afterwards,” “ immediately.” 
- It is unnecessary to enlarge on the nature of these 
words, or to point out the phrases into which they are 
resolvable, and of which they often are abbreviations. 
crm The adverbs of Affirmation and Negation have been 
ne- reckoned different in their nature from all the others, 
When the subject, the predicate, and the copula are 
arranged in the order:of assertion, no’ separate word is 
ne! to affirmation ; but sometimes an adverb is 
' conjoined to call the attention of the mind with , sae 
yhasis to the truth of the assertion. Such are the ad- 
“verbs ‘ indeed;” « ;” and “ certainly.”. If a 
question is asked which admits of an answer by the 
simple affirmation or negation, the answers in the 
affirmative may be given in English by such adverbs 
as “ certainly,” * even so;”’ or in Latin by eliam, imo 
or wtique. Sometimes a peculiar word, and one which 
is never used as an adverb in a sentence, is applied to 
' this object. The English word “ yes,” is of this kind. 
© Yes,” is considered by Mr Tooke as derived from 
- ayes “have” or “ enjoys” and meaning “have or 
entertain that belief.’ The English « yea,” the Ger- 
man ja, and the corresponding words in the north- 
ern languages, are derived from a’similar source.’ It is 
therefore to be considered not as an adverb, but.as an 
abbreviation for a sentence. The adverb “ certainly,” 
and others equivalent to it, become by ellipsis contrac- 
tions for the same sentence. If we keep out of view 
_ the etymological origin of the words used on such 
Occasions, and consider them all as containing an equally 
full expression of the meaning of the speaker, we must 
reckon them abbreviations for sentences ; but wherever 
they are introduced into the body of a sentence, they 
are adverbs ing the same properties as other 
~ words of that class. ey signify that the assertions to 
which they are ied are not hypothetical, but in 
conformity to the nature of things. 
The negative adverb expresses the absence of this 
ce poms 6 The same word is in some languages either 
used sin, , Bsr an answer to’a question, or annexed to 
a verb in the formation of asentence. The Latin words 
minim, nequaquam, and non are used jn both of these 
/ ways. But in. are OH the word is on these occasions 
} subjected to a slight change. The adverb is “ not.” 
| Thenegative answer is’ no.’? This last is said to be 
of prior date, and derived from a verb signifying «I 
Site a> 
‘GRAMMAR, 
439 
deny,” or “ I anv averse ;” but, whatever its etymologi- Universal 
cal origin may bé, it is, like the word “yes,” acontrac- Grammar. 
tion for a sentence, with this difference, that the sen- 
tence for which it stands implies the force of the adverb 
“not,” and thus reverses the meaning. ‘ Not” has the 
same general character with the other adverbs: it mo- 
difies the verb, and thus forms part of the predicate. 
A negative sentence is the reverse of the 
ing affirmation. Yet there is no general difference of negative 
character betwixt affirmations and negations. Affirma~ sentences. 
tions are often as directly opposite to each other as to 
negations, “ He is without,” and “ he is within,” are 
directly contrary. Many assertions can be made eq 
well in the negative and in the affirmative form. “He 
is at home” is an affirmative sentence, and thé same idea 
is expressed by these negations, “ He is not from home,” 
and “ He is no where but at home.” 
CHAP. VIII. 
Of Prepositions. 
Dirrerences of opinion have been entertained on Difficulties 
the nature of Prepositions. It is easy to give a charac- in defining 
ter which will apply to them all; but it has been found Preposi- 
difficult to give one which will apply to them exclu- 
sively. Mr Tooke has been considered by some as solv~ 
ing every difficulty, by pronouncing them abbreviations 
of nouns or verbs. this author shews that many of 
them are of the same nature with some of those words 
which are called conjunctions, and considers that cir- 
cumstance as proving the inaccuracy of this instance 
of grammatical distinction. In so far as the idea express 
sed has been represented as a ground of distinction, this 
author is correct. But when we abandon that system, 
and take the circumstances of syntax as the foundation 
of our classifications of words, we shall find that some 
distinctions which were formerly improperly accounted 
for are referable to satisfactory data. 
The classification of the short words called particles Extension 
appears to us defective, and we shall in the present in- of the term. 
stance introduce a slight variation from the common 
usages of grammarians. We shall apply the term prepo- 
sition to a more extensive genus than our predecessors 
have done, by including under it some words hitherto 
called conjunctions. Those words which are usually Distribu- 
called prepositions, we distinguish by the appellation of tion of 
Nominal prepositions, because they are introductory to them into 
nouns ; and the others by that of Sentential prepositions, ‘¥° *P°** 
because they are introductory to sentences, 
Seer. I. Nominal Prepositions. 
Nomrnat prepositions have been described by many Character o! 
grammarians as “ words which signify the mutual rela. the nomins! 
tions of objects.” But a pager pa 4 expres- 
sed by every part of speech. Mr Ruddiman wit 
proptiety, dceribes the preposition as “ An indechnable 
part of speech signifying the relation of one substantive 
to another,’ Weprefer saying that it signifies “a relation 
subsisting betwixt the idea’ expressed by one substantive 
noun wnt that a another.” It is to be observed 
that, with thé exception of the’ preposition “ of” in Eng 
lish, and’ some rare expressions already alluded to under 
the head of the'genitive case, a verb, adjective, or parti- 
ciple is interposed between thé first of the nouns and the 
preposition. The preposition “ of” is as frequently em- 
ployed immediately after a noun in English as the gee 
