C42 



ICE. 



tieath. But, after it has readied the -10th degree, a far- 

 ther reduction of temperature, instead of contraction, 

 produces an expansion ; and the water retains its situa- 

 tion, unless operated on by some other force. While it 

 is perfectly still, therefore, it remains at 40 at the bot- 

 tom, while at the surface it is at 32, and in that part the 

 process of congelation goes on, the mere conducting 

 power of water requiring a long time to effect an equali- 

 zation of temperature. The difference of specific gravi- 

 ty, however, between water at 40 and at the freezing 

 point is not great, and a very slight motion is adequate to 

 produce a thorough intermixture, and consequent ex- 

 tension of the freezing temperature through the whole. 

 When this is effected, and at the same time the congela- 

 tion resisted by the motions of the surface, it is promo- 

 ted by the nature of the substances at the bottom. The 

 varieties in the qualities of different substances in this 

 respect, as ascertained by experiment, are curious. Hair, 

 especially boiled horse hair, wool, chaff, moss, and 

 the bark of trees covered with lichens, are found to 

 promote the formation of ice in a higher degree than any 

 metals. Of the latter, copper, brass, steel, and above 

 All tin, have ice formed on them sooner and more abun- 



dantly than iron. Polished stone and earthen-ware at- 

 tract very little. On wax, resins, pitch, silk, lea- 

 ther, and wood deprived of its bark, it is seldom or ne- 

 ver found. On the bottoms of boats, however, incrus- 

 tations have been found, which have been evidently 

 formed of the sichl-eis. 



This process requires a powerful fro?t. Hence it 

 appears comparatively seldom in the more temperate 

 countries. Yet it is described by M. Desmarest as ha- 

 ving occurred in the Rhone and the Seine. The laws 

 by which it is regulated are worthy of a more minute 

 experimental investigation than they have hitherto re- 

 ceived. 



See Romt de Lisle's Crysta/lograpliie, torn. i. p. 4. 

 Hasseafratz .Journal de Physique, Jan. 1785. D'Antic, 

 Id. 1788, vol. xxxiii. p. ,57. Hericaut de Thury, Jour- 

 nal des Mines, 1813, vol. xxxiii. p. 157. The Memoir 

 of Mr Scoresby in the Memoirs of lite Wernerian Natural 

 History Society of Edinburgh, vol. ii. part 2. Col. Beau- 

 foy in Thomson's Annals, May 1817. Desmarest, Journal 

 de Physique, Jan. 1 783; and.M. Jules-Henri Pott, Id. July 

 1788. See also the articlesCoLD, GLACIERS, GREENLAND, 

 HUDSON'S BAY, OPXICS, and POLARISATION. (H. D.) 



Ice. 



ICELAND. 



^Iceland. ICELAND, is a large island situate on the verge of the 

 ""~ Y """ ' Arctic Ocean, between the 63 and 67 of north lati- 

 tude, and the 12 and 25" of longitude west from Green- 

 wich. 



History. This island was discovered about the year 860 by a 



Norwegian pirate, named Naddodr, who was acciden- 

 tally driven upon the coast while on a voyage to the 

 Faroe islands. A few years afterwards a Swede, Gar- 

 dar, succeeded in circumnavigating the island, and 

 gave it the name of Gardarsholm. Its present name 

 was given to it by Floke, a famous pirate of those 

 times, who remained two years, during which he ex- 

 plored most of the southern and western coasts. The 

 country was colonized in the year 874, from Norway ; 

 the subjugation of which, by HAROLD the fair-haired, 

 had produced much discontent among the petty states 

 which he reduced. The leader of the emigration from 

 Norway was named Ingolf, who, with his kinsman 

 Hiorleif, went to Iceland in the year 870, and made 

 arrangements for the settlement. It is asserted by 

 tome of the Icelandic historians, that there were actual 

 settlements in the island before this period ; but this 

 seems improbable. The first of the Norwegian visitors 

 found, on some parts of the coast, wooden crosses, and 

 implements, from which it is inferred that those who 

 had preceded them were Christians. In the Landuama 

 Bok, which is among the earliest of the Icelandic his- 

 torical records, it is stated, that, among other things, 

 writings in the Irish language were found. The state- 

 ments on this subject are so various, that it is impos- 

 sible to form any probable conjecture on the point ia 

 question. 



The colony first settled in the south-western part of 

 the island; and the spot,where the town of Reikiavik now 

 stands was chosen, on account of the result of a super- 

 stitious observance, which guided many of the settlers 

 in the choice of their future places of abode. When 

 Ingolf approached the shores of Iceland, he threw into 

 the sea the door of his former habitation in Norway, 



4 



and having found it cast on the beach at Reikiavik, he Iceland. 

 there fixed his station. In the course of half a century, ^7 v" ' 

 the coasts of this remote country were well peopled ; History, 

 and in the Landnama Bok, already mentioned, which 

 contains minute details of the spreading of the colonies, 

 we find several names of Scotch and Irish families who 

 came over and settled. 



At first, every body of emigrants remained under the 

 influence of a leader, who parcelled out the land to his 

 followers. But this feudal arrangement was soon found 

 inconvenient, from the contests which arose for pos- 

 sessions claimed by the various petty chieftains. By 

 common consent, a new system of government, which 

 included the whole country, was settled in the year 

 928. The island was divided into four provinces, su- 

 perintended by an hereditary governor. The southern 

 and western provinces were subdivided into three pre- 

 fectures, the northern one into four, and the eastern 

 into two. The authorities over these were also heredi- 

 tary. There were still more subdivisions, called Ilrep- 

 par, in each of which five officers were appointed, 

 men of property and respectability, whose care it 

 was to keep peace and good order, and to manage 

 the concerns of the poor in their respective districts. 

 The proceedings of the superintendents of districts 

 were under the cognizance of the prefect and his de- 

 puties, who met once a year ; from whom there was an 

 appeal to the provincial court ; and finally, to the su- 

 preme assembly of Iceland. 



This great assembly was held annually on the shores 

 of the lake called Thingvalla, from the name of the as- 

 sembly althing, which is derived from al, all, and thing, 

 a court of justice. A president was chosen, with the 

 title Laugman, or administrator of the laws, and was 

 invested with all the symbols of dignity and power. 

 It was his province to interpret the laws, and pro- 

 nounce sentence ; and his authority, though dependent 

 on the will of the states, was often continued for life. 



Such is an outline of a constitution settled without 



