THE NOMAD HERDSMEN AND HERDS OF THE STEPPES. 463 



the most difficult situations, as in wading through rocky mountain 

 torrents or climbing steep precipices. It is as insatiable as all other 

 domesticated animals accustomed to roam freely over the steppe, 

 but in its association with others of its species, except in the 

 breeding season, it is as peaceable as it is obedient and submissive 

 to its master. 



The poorer Kirghiz possess only horses enough to provide a 

 mount for each member of the family, and to ensure the continu- 

 ance of their stock. The richer dwellers on the steppe, on the 

 other hand, have four or five, indeed I have often been assured as 

 many as ten or twelve thousand head, which feed in separate herds, 

 and at different places, and therefore, naturally enough, thrive 

 better than those of their poorer brethren. Each herd consists of 

 at least fifteen, or at most fifty individuals; in the latter case it 

 comprises one fully-grown stallion, nine brood-mares, and as many 

 young foals, eight two-year-olds, six or eight three-year-olds, and 

 five or six four-year-olds, besides some older animals or geldings. 

 The stallion is absolute lord and master, guide, leader, and protector 

 of the herd, and he never lets himself be deprived of a single foal 

 by the wolf, but attacks that cowardly robber boldly and successfully, 

 striking him to the ground with his hoofs if he shows fight. But 

 he will not tolerate a rival, and drives out all other stallions from 

 the herd as soon as they come to maturity; when he enters on 

 his leadership he drives away his own mother, and later his own 

 daughters. This proud wilfulness necessitates the greatest watch- 

 fulness on the part of the herdsman during the pairing time, lest 

 he lose the expelled mares which are seeking a new sultan, or the 

 stallions which are striving for their own independence. The 

 young mare reaches maturity in her fifth year, and the following 

 spring, usually in March, she brings forth her first foal. She is 

 not at once separated from the rest of the herd, but in May she 

 and her foal are brought into the neighbourhood of the yurt, and 

 for four months she is regularly milked to provide the famous 

 koumiss or milk-wine. In autumn, mother and young are allowed 

 to rejoin the herd. Both are received without hesitation, and they 

 enjoy their newly-recovered freedom to the full. 



