err 



err 



against the city. The best form for a ci- 

 tadel is a pentagon, a square being too 

 weak, and a hexagon too big. 



CITATION, in ecclesiastical courts, is 

 the same with summons in civil courts. 

 A person is not to be cited out of the dio- 

 cese where he lives, unless it be by the 

 archbishop, in default of the ordinary, or 

 where the ordinary is party to the suit, 

 and in case of appeal. 



CITHAREXYLUM, in botany, English 

 fiddle-wood, a genus of theDidynamia An- 

 giospermia class and order. Natural or- 

 der of Personatae. Vitices, Jussieu. Es- 

 sential character: calyx ftve-toothed, bell- 

 form ; corolla funnel-wheel-form ; seg- 

 ments above, equal; berry two-seeded; 

 seeds two-celled. There are five species; 

 all natives of the West Indies. 



CITIES, rise of. After the fall of the 

 Roman Empire, the proprietors of land 

 lived principally on their own estates; the 

 towns were inhabited by mechanics and 

 tradesmen, chiefly in the condition of 

 slaves. The people, to whom it was 

 granted as a privilege that they might 

 give away their own daughters in mar- 

 riage without the consent of their lord, 

 and that upon their death their own chil- 

 dren and not their lord should succeed to 

 their goods, must have previously been 

 in entirely or nearly the same state of 

 villanage as the occupiers of land in the 

 country. They seem to have been much 

 on a level with the hawkers and pedlars 

 of modern times. 



They were generally obliged to pay 

 some tax or toll for the privilege of sell- 

 ing their goods at particular places. As 

 this source of revenue was thought of 

 some importance by the feudal sove- 

 reigns and lords, in order to ensure its re- 

 gular payment, they wereinducedin many 

 instances to farm it out for a certain sum 

 to the inhabitants of different towns, who, 

 in order enforce its payment by the 

 traders, were invested with the pow- 

 ers and privileges still possessed by the 

 corporations of cities and boroughs. A 

 town thus became a privileged place, of 

 which traders were not only the inhabi- 

 tants, but the governors, at least in all that 

 related to internal management. 



The turbulent feudal lords were often 

 incited by the riches of the burghs to at- 

 tempt to plunder their houses and ware- 

 houses ; hence the owners naturally fear- 

 ed and hated the lords; the sovereigns 

 of the different states of Europe, for 

 other reasons, likewise hated and feared 

 the lords ; this served as a bond of union 

 between the sovereigns andthe corporate 



towns, and enabled the towns to gain 

 great privileges from those sovereigns 

 who most needed their assistance, as 

 King John in England ; and in some in- 

 stances to become independent, as was 

 the case with the little republics of Italy, 

 and the imperial cities in Germany. 



CITRATES, in chemistry, salts formed 

 by the combination of the citric acid, and 

 alkalies and earths ; thus we have the ci- 

 trate of potash, the citrate of soda, &c. 

 See CITRIC ACID. 



CITRIC acid, in chemistry, is found in 

 the juice of lemons and limes, and is 

 that which gives it the sour taste. It is 

 mixed, however, with mucilaginous and 

 extractive matter. Scheele found that it 

 could not be obtained pure and crystal- 

 lized by mere evaporation of the lemon 

 juice, and that even the addition of alco- 

 hol did not separate completely the fo- 

 reign matter. The process he followed 

 is, to saturate the expressed juice of the 

 lemon, by the addition of chalk. The 

 citric acid., combining with the lime, forms 

 an insoluble compound, which of course 

 precipitates. This is well washed with 

 warm water, until the water pass off co- 

 lourless ; and in this way the mucilage 

 and extractive matter are abstracted. The 

 citrate of lime is then subjected to the 

 action of as much sulphuric acid, previ- 

 ously diluted, as is sufficient to saturate 

 the litne of the quantity of chalk that has 

 been employed. The citric acid is disen- 

 gaged and dissolved by the water; the 

 mixture is boiled for a few minutes, to 

 facilitate the precipitation of the sulphate 

 of lime, and is then filtered. The filtered 

 liquor is evaporated to the consistence of 

 syrup, and sulphate of lime separated 

 daring the evaporation being withdrawn; 

 and, on cooling and standing for some 

 time, the citric acid is obtained in needle- 

 like crystals. 



Citric acid exists in a number of other 

 fruits, from which it may be extracted, 

 and much, it is said, of what is at present 

 found in the shops is prepared from the 

 juice of the lime. From Vauquelin's an- 

 alysis of the pulp of the tamarind, it ap- 

 pears to be the chief acid constituent of 

 that fruit; one pound of the common pre- 

 pared pulp of the shops containing an 

 ounce and a half, with smaller quantities 

 of malic and tartaric acids. This acid is 

 very soluble in water. At a moderate 

 temperature, 100 parts of water dissolve 

 75 parts, cold being produced during the 

 solution ; at 212 it dissolves twice its 

 weight of it. Like the other vegetable 

 acids, its solution undergoes spontaneous 



