PRINCIPLES OF FRUIT-GROWIXG AND DEVELOPMENT. 97 



leafage. But it often happens where a heavy mulching is 

 covered over the deeply frozen earth in which the feeding- 

 roots are held that the full supply of water and plant-food 

 is not carried to the top in time for healthy growth. In 

 rare cases we have known the imperfectly supplied leaves 

 and starting shoots to be injured by sun and wind and the 

 vitality of the trees and bushes permanently lowered. 

 Indeed, in one case reported by G. P. Peffer, of Wisconsin, 

 bearing apple-trees were killed in this way. 



101. Washing of Orchard Soils. As each year the 

 selection of hill and slope land for orchard sites is becom- 

 ing more general, the washing and gullying of such soils 

 under cultivation becomes an important subject for con- 

 sideration. If the slope is quite decided the finer particles 

 of soil are soon carried to lower levels and the storms and 

 showers run off too quickly for penetration to the tree- 

 roots. In such older States as Virginia, Massachusetts, 

 and New York, the hill soils under culture in many cases 

 are already ruined by the washing process. In south 

 France tens of thousands of acres once covered with 

 orange-, grape-, and other fruit-plantations were ruined by 

 washing to such extent that the lands were abandoned for 

 many years. At this time they are mainly restored by 

 levelling, fertilizing, and a system of planting by running 

 the rows and cultivating at right angles with the slope of 

 the hills. In that region the rows and culture often run 

 around the circular hills. Hence the common name of 

 " zone-planting." 



With the rows planted at right angles to the slope and 

 the culture between the rows given in the same direction, 

 a ridge is soon formed in the line of the rows that helps 

 to hold the water. If the slope is quite steep the space 

 between the trees in the row is planted with small fruits, 

 and in south France usually witli filberts to strengthen 



