PHANEROGAMIA : FLOWERS. 335 



and structure, the outer is named the calyx, its component organs 

 being sepals ; while the inner is termed the corolla, its single parts 

 petals. Then, if three circles of forms are distinguishable, the 

 outermost is called the epicatyx, the leaves of which may be deno- 

 minated phylla. When, between the simple or manifold floral 

 envelopes and the stamens, other independent foliar organs occur, 

 which exhibit a structure very imperfect and abnormal com- 

 pared with the true envelopes, these are called a paracorolla, of 

 which it will be necessary to speak further on, among the accessory 

 parts of the flower. 



It would be vain to seek in most of our botanical works for an ex- 

 planation of what really is the distinction between the separate kinds of 

 floral envelopes. Here, as almost everywhere else, botanists are careless 

 about scientific treatment, about strictly defined conceptions. The in- 

 dividual forms are taken up diagrammatically, the internal unity not 

 perceived, because no correct method is used, and thence the accurate 

 comprehension of the external distinctions in the phenomena also be- 

 comes impossible. How childish are the many contests we have had as to 

 whether a plant had a calyx, a corolla, or a perianth ; people had forgotten 

 that for the decision of this point it was first necessary to examine 

 whether nature does generally exhibit these three kinds of foliar or- 

 gans as different, and if so, how nature (not we with our fancies) dis- 

 tinguishes the parts. In nature we find the distinction so, and in no 

 other manner, as I have given it in the paragraph, since all floral 

 envelopes consist of foliar organs, in which a countless multitude of 

 varieties of form, colour, and structure are equally possible. Where all 

 the parts are developed alike, they are consequently only like parts, to 

 be named with one word, undoubtedly the simplest and most natural 

 condition ; where, on the other hand, differences manifest themselves, 

 the subdivision thus produced may be distinguished by the application 

 of different names, which at the same time are only valid when the dif 

 ferences actually exist, and none of which are ever to be used where 

 nature herself has not made a distinction. It is therefore a funda- 

 mental error when Kunth (Handb. der Botanik, 81.) carries over the 

 term calyx to the perianth, since it is not the calyx, but calyx and co- 

 rolla together ; which correspond to the perianth, and it is an empty, 

 groundless fiction to say that when only one set of similar envelopes 

 exists, the corolla is always wanting. Lindley (Introduction to Botany, 

 llth ed. 136.) has comprehended the conditions most correctly and clearly 

 on the whole, but errs when he speaks of calyx and corolla in the IA- 

 liacece ; here nothing is to be founded on the number of circles, other- 

 wise the Thymelacece would also have calyx and corolla, and a new 

 word would be required for the Berberacece, since these have four circles 

 of floral envelopes. How far very many botanists still are from having, 

 I will not say a deep insight into the nature of plants, but merely a con- 

 ception of the primary principles of the frue^study of nature, is shown 

 by a remarkable expression of Ach. Richard. He says : " The floral 



envelopes are somewhat modified l?aves It is often difficult 



not to regard them as one and the same -organ. Meanwhile botanists 

 ltd re agreed, in order to facilitate the establishment of the generic cha- 

 racters of plants, to regard them, in consideration of their position and 

 purpose, as altogether different from the organs with which they at the 



