168 



POPULAR SCIEI^OE NEWS. 



[November, 1888. 



into a structural formula, showing how the 

 atoms are united among themselves, we have 



H H 



I I 

 H — C — C — O — H, 

 I I 

 H H 



which shows the foundation or skeleton of two 

 carbon atoms, with their chemical affinities, 

 satisfied by the addition of five atoms of h^-dro- 

 gen and one of hydroxjl (OH). 



It is a peculiar tendenc}- of carbon atoms to 

 unite among themselves in an endless variety of 

 waj's. Carbon has four valences, or chemical 

 affinities, and can unite with four atoms of 

 hydrogen or other element having only one 

 valence. The simplest hydrocarbon, there- 

 fore, has the composition CH^, and is known 

 as methane, or marsh-gas. But, owing to this 

 tendenc3' of carbon atoms to unite together, 

 we find there is a regular series of such com- 

 pounds, each differing from ihe other by CH^. 

 Thus we have ethane, CgH^ ; propane, CgHj ; 

 butane, C^Hj„ ; and so on up to hexadecane, 

 CjgHj^. Theoreticallj' the series might be 

 continued indefinitel3-, but only a few of the 

 higher members are actually known. 



Several other series are known, dependent 

 upon the different number of valences or affin- 

 ities of the carbon atoms which are neutralized 

 by uniting with each other; and, as each of 

 the members of these series can be changed in 

 a great variety of ways by the addition or 

 substitution of other elements and compound 

 radicals, it will be seen that the number of 

 possible organic compounds is almost infinite, 

 and increases at the same rate as the numbers 

 in problems of permutation. Starting with 

 the skeleton of carbon atoms, we can form or 

 build up different individual organic substances, 

 just as the different human individuals are all 

 supported by a similar bonj- framework. 



But there is still another and greater cause 

 for variety in organic substances. This is 

 isomerism, or the occurrence of two or more 

 bodies, different in every respect, but possess- 

 ing the same chemical composition. A simple 

 example is found in two substances known as 

 butyric acid and acetic ether, both having the 

 symbol C^HjO^, but with their atoms arranged 

 in very different order, as shown by the follow- 

 ing structural formulae : — 



H H H O 



I I I II 

 H— C-C— C— C— O— H 

 I I I 

 H H H 



Butyric acid = C^HgOj. 



O 



H H 



I I 



II — C — C — O — C — C — H 



1 1 I 



H H H 



Acetic ether = CJIjOj. 



According to this theory of position the 

 different compounds are built up from the 

 same elements, just as different buildings maj' 

 be formed out of the same bricks. Of course, 

 this is only a theory, as we cannot actuallj' 

 prove the existence of the atoms themselves, 



to say nothing of their position in the mole- 

 cule ; but the theory perfectly explains all the 

 observed facts, and evidently is based upon 

 some great natural law, although it may be 

 an entirely different one from that which we 

 conceive it to be at present. The artificial 

 production of alizarin, or the coloring princi- 

 ple of madder, is a triumph of this theory, as 

 it was due entirely' to considerations based 

 upon this theory of position. The working- 

 out of these structural formulae, as they, are 

 called, is engaging the attention of the ma- 

 jority of chemists at the present day. 



Of the millions of possible organic bodies, 

 only comparatively few have ever been actually 

 produced. The majority of them are of no 

 practical value, although, on the contrarj', 

 some of the most important and useful sub- 

 stances known are included in this class. 

 Albumen, gelatine, starch, woody fibre, sugar, 

 morphine, quinine, indigo, and the aniline 

 colors, all possess the nucleus of carbon atoms. 

 This peculiar element, which is so closely* 

 connected with the products of living beings, 

 forms, when combined with oxygen, onl}- the 

 dead, inactive carbonic dioxide, or, when 

 united to nitrogen, becomes a part of the highly 

 poisonous derivatives of cyanogen, the radical 

 of the deadly' prussic acid. No other element 

 exhibits itself in so many different forms, and 

 none confers its own inherent characteristics 

 upon its compounds to a less degree. We have 

 yet much to learn about the true nature of the 

 carbon compounds ; and until this knowledge 

 is obtained, we must rest content to explain 

 the singular phenomena presented by these 

 bodies, bj- an unproved and perhaps unprov- 

 able theoiy. 



— • — 



[Specially reported for The Popular Science yewt.] 

 METEOROLOGY FOR SEPTEMBER, 1888. 



TEMPERATURE. 



The lowest point of the thermometer the last 

 month at tlie hour of observation was 34°, on the 

 30th; the highest 76°, on the 10th. The coolest 

 day averaged 41 §°, also the 30th; the warmest, 

 70§°, the 17th, only one-third of a degree warmer 

 than the 1st. The entire month was two and a 

 quarter degrees cooler than the average of ihe last 

 eighteen Septembers, and the coolest, with three 

 exceptions. The last ten days of the month aver- 

 aged only 52 37°, and embraced a long period of 

 cool, cloudy, and uncomfortable weather. This cool 

 month has increased the general backwardness of 

 the year, showing the daily, temperatures thus far 

 to be 1.1.6° below the average. This deficiency of 

 heat must have had a sensible influence on vegeta- 

 tion. The first frost of the season occurred on the 

 7th, very slight in this immediate locality. More 

 severe frosts occurred on the mornings of the 29th 

 and 30th. 



SKY. 



The face of the sky in 90 observations gave 37 

 fair, 15 cloudy, 28 overcast, and 10 rainy, — a per- 



centage of only 41.1 fair. The average for the last 

 eighteen Septembers has been 59.2 fair, with ex- 

 tremes of 35.5, in 1882, and 77.7, in 1871. This 

 has been the cloudiest month, with a single excep- 

 tion, in eighteen Septembers. Nearly one-third 

 of the month was completely overcast, not includ- 

 ing the ten rainy observations. The sun was a 

 comparative stranger for quite a period toward the 

 end of the month. The 26th was noted as a dark 

 day. The morning was so dark till 10 am., it 

 was necessary to have a light in order to read or 

 write with comfort, while the rain was falling in 

 torrents, and the wind blowing fiercely from the 

 north. The mornings of the 20th and 25th were 

 foggy, and but very few days could be called fine. 

 The 2d, 3d, and 27th only were so noted. 



PRECIPITATION. 



The amount of rainfall the past month was 9.88 

 inches, the largest amount in September for twenty 

 years. The next largest amount in September was 

 9.30 inches, in 1882, when we had 14 rainy obser- 

 vations. The average amount in September for 

 twenty years is only 2.86 inches, with extremes of 

 .45 inch, in 1877, and 9 88, in 1888. The largest 

 amount at one time the past month was 3.44 inches, 

 on the 26th, with a strong wind. This large amount 

 fell in a few hours during that dark morning. On 

 the 10th, 18th, and 21st were heavy rains, — a total 

 fall of 4.55 inches, in nearly equal amounts. Sharp 

 lightning and heavy thunder occurred on the 2l8t. 

 The amount of precipitation since Jan. 1 has been 

 46 27 inches, while the average for these nine 

 months the last twenty years has been only 34.53, 

 showing an excess of 11.74 inches above the gen- 

 eral average. 



PRESSURE. 



The average pressure was 30 033 inches, with 

 extremes of 29.60, on the 26th, and 30.50, on the 

 7th, — a range of .90 inch. The average for the 

 last fifteen Septembers has been 30.025 inches, with 

 extremes of 29 915, in 1876, and 30.110, in 1887. 

 The sum of the daily variations was 4.40 inches, 

 giving an average daily movement of .147 inch. 

 This average in fifteen Septembers has been .128 

 inch, with extremes of .074 and 166. The largest 

 daily movements were .51, on the 26th, .45, on the 

 8th, and .28, on the ICth, all on days of heavy rain- 

 fall; and yet the heavy rain of 1.54 inches on the 

 21st was attended by only .08 inch movement, while 

 on the three preceding days, and the day following, 

 the barometer was stationary. The month main- 

 tains its claim as the banner month for the highest 

 average barometer. It was 30 inches or above for 

 eighteen days. 



WINDS. 



The direction of the wind in 90 observations 

 gave 18 N., 5 S., 13 E., 11 W., 11 N.E., 19 N.W., 

 4 S.E , and 9 S.W , an excess of 30 northerly and 

 11 westerly over the southerly and easterly, and 

 indicating the average direction of the month to 

 have been W. 69° 52' N. The westerly winds have 

 uniformly prevailed over the easterly in Septem- 

 ber, with a single exception for nineteen years, by 

 an average of 25.47 observations, and the north- 

 erly over the southerly, with eight exceptions, by 

 an average of 1.90; indicating the approximate 

 average direction the last nineteen Septembers to 

 have been W. 4° 15' N. This shows that the winds 

 the past month have been 65° 37' more northerly 

 than usual, and one cause of the unusually cool 

 month. The relative progressive distance travelled 

 by the winds the past month was 31.96 units, and 

 during the last nineteen Septembers 485.3 such 

 units, — an average of 25.54 per month; showing 

 less opposing winds than usual. 



