18 



t*OPtTLAR SCIENCE NEW^. 



[l^KBRUARY, 1889. 



fact that hy its cotnhination witli otiier ele- 

 ments the remarkable characteristics of nitro- 

 gen are awakened into action. The gas is 

 neither poisonous, corrosive, explosive, nutri- 

 tious nor medicinal, but combined with car- 

 bon and hydrogen it forms the deadly prussic 

 acid; with oxygen and hydrogen, the strong 

 corrosive nitric acid ; with hydrogen alone, 

 the strongly basic alkali ammonia ; with car- 

 bon, hydrogen, and oxygen, the terrible ex- 

 plosive nitro-glycerine ; and with the same 

 elements in varying proportions, it forms the 

 albuminoids, the gelatines, the glutens, and 

 other strength-giving elements of our food, or 

 the indispensable medicinal agents, — quinine, 

 morphine, atropine, strychnine, veratrine, co- 

 caine, and many others. 



Although nitrogen is tasteless, it forms an 

 indispensable part of the flavors of the peach, 

 plum, apricot, and other delicious fruits, as 

 well as coffee, tea, chocolate, and tobacco. 

 Without smell, it is found in many of the 

 most powerful and delicious perfumes, as 

 well as in the nauseating odors of putrefac- 

 tion. Present in immense quantities in the 

 air, it furnishes little or no support to vegeta- 

 tion, but combined with other elements the 

 amount present in the soil determines its fer- 

 tility, and the amount of crops which maybe 

 raised upon it. Colorless and invisible, nearly 

 every dye-stuft or coloring matter known 

 contains it in greater or less proportion. 

 Harmless and powerless by itself, when com- 

 bined with another non-explosivegas, chlorine, 

 it foVms the most powerful explosive known, of 

 which a ray of simlight is sufficient to arouse 

 the terribly destructive power. 



And }et, notwithstanding the pre-eminent 

 importance of this element in the affairs of 

 life, there are but few of its combinations 

 which we can form directly. Millions of tons 

 of nitrogen are all about us, but not a single 

 grain of morphine or theinc, gelatine or 

 albumen, aniline or napthaline, can we make 

 from it. Onlv the mysterious vital force 

 working in the natural laboratory of the \ eg- 

 etable or animal organism, can build up most 

 of these complicated molecules from their ulti- 

 mate elements, and place the atoms of nitrogen 

 in their proper position like the beams or stones 

 of a building. Our wonder at the marvellous 

 powers displayed by these organisms is none 

 the less when we see what simple, common, 

 and uncharacteristic elements are used by 

 them in making up their wonderful products, 

 and we can, only say that it is a part of the 

 great and un.solvable mystery of Life. 



Neither can we explain satisfactorily from 

 a chemical standpoint the properties and re- 

 actions of this strange element ; by itself it is 

 nothing, but united with other elements, some 

 almost equally inactive, the combinations thus 

 produced manifest the most powerful and 

 positive chemical and physical properties. It 

 is like the springing into life of dead matter, 



but there is no system of chemical philosophy 

 which can give a reason whv it is so. It is 

 the part of the chemist to observe and record 

 the facts connected with the properties of dif- 

 ferent forms of matter, and in time we may 

 from these facts construct a rational theory, 

 but we are still a long way from a clear com- 

 prehension of the phenomena of the Universe. 

 There are about as many things in heaven and 

 earth still undreamt of in our philosophy as 

 there were in Shakespeare's time, and the 

 further we advance towards the end the more 

 the field widens and appears to be of illimita- 

 ble extent. 



[OriginBl in The Popular Science N'ews,] 



EVENTS AT NIAGARA. 



BV II. J. SEYMOIIR. 



TiiEHE have been three distinct falls of rock 

 at the falls lately. The ffrst was on the night 

 of Jan. 4th at half past nine at night ; the 

 second on the night of the =;th, at 10; and the 

 third about half an hour after the second. All 

 of them occurred under the waters of the 

 Canadian fall, and hence their extent cannot 

 be easily determined. One of them was from 

 the side of the Horse-shoe fall nearest Goat 

 Island, and the other two near the middle and 

 on the Canadian side. The first and the last 

 are reported by the keeper of the Falls house 

 near by as being comparatively light, but the 

 second is described as tremendous, jarring 

 the great stone building and bursting open 

 doors. The concussion was felt nearly a mile 

 up the river on the islands. The grinding of 

 the rock occasioned a strong odor, described 

 as similar to that which attends blasting. 



As before mentioned, it is difficult to esti- 

 mate the amount of rock broken off under 

 the water, but the most casual observation of 

 any one accustomed to viewing the falls, can- 

 not fail to detect a marked change in the 

 shape of the curve made by the falling wa- 

 ters. Whereas, the curve near the Canada 

 shore was somewhat angular; it is now much 

 more rounded, conforming more nearly to 

 the shape of the insiile of a horse-siioe. In 

 consequence of these later breakages, the 

 Vjend of the canyon below the falls is more 

 easterly in conformit\' to the bend in the river 

 at this point. 



Another event of great import to the in- 

 habitants about here, is the blowing away of 

 the upper suspension bridge at 3 o'clock on 

 the morning of the 9th. The towers and ca- 

 bles remain, but the place looks suflicienth' 

 forlorn with the body of the bridge gone, and 

 the side cables that sustained it dangling from 

 the great cables abf)ve. 



A less important memento of the gale is the 

 blowing down of over^a dozen evergreens and 

 some other trees in the Qiieen's park. 



The terrible gale from the west that did 

 this mischief, and that, as J am writing, has 

 not quite blown itself out, probably acting 



upon the waters of Lake Erie, has occasioned 

 ail unprecedented rise in the waters of the 

 river. The wharf of the " Maid of the Mist" 

 is submerged, the ticket office that was oil 

 it has disappeared, and there are indica-' 

 tions of a height of water unknown before 

 except in times of ice-gorge. 



The two striking features of this place — 

 the falls and the bridge — one natural ami the 

 other artificial, seem to have been in a kind of 

 sympathetic relation to each other, inasmuch 

 as a catastrophe has smitten them both at 

 the same time. 



Niagara Falls, Jan. 9, 1SS9. 



[Original in The Popular Science News ] 



DIVISION OF LABOR IN THE ECONOMY 



OF ANIMAL LIFE. 



BY PROFESSOR JAMES H. STOLLER. 



The dictum of the political economist that all 

 values originate in labor applies as well in the 

 world of animal life as in human society. No ani- 

 mal leads so free an existence that it has no need to 

 bestir itself to gain food and to secure shelter 

 against adverse phvsieal conditions and against its 

 natural enemies. The things of paramount value 

 to both men and animals are food, shelter and de- 

 fense against enemies, and these are obtained by 

 both onh' on terms of labor. It is therefore not 

 surprising that in animal communities some of the 

 more necessary and fundamental features of human 

 sociology show themselves. One of the most note- 

 worthy of these is that of division of labor, The 

 following instances are adduced : 



Birds. — A simple case of the employment of the 

 principle of division of labor is seen in some species 

 of birds in connection with the work of incubation. 

 The female bird covers the eggs the whole or the 

 greater part of the time, the male bird the while ob- 

 taining food for both. Here, then, is a division of 

 the duties-of the family life, the male bird provid- 

 ing sustenance, while the female attends to the 

 bringing forth of young. It is interesting to note 

 that in this primitive case of the division of labor 

 the duties shared are those that grow out of the two 

 primary, essential functions oi life, nutrition and 

 rifproduction (See Poi-ular Science News, Dec. 

 iSSS) the former being adapted to the male, and the 

 latter to the female. 



Bees and Ants. — A more noteworthy cise of di- 

 vision of labor is furnished by these insects. It is 

 well known that a colony of bees or ants consists of 

 at least three classes of individuals or '-castes," 

 males, females, and workers. To the males and fe- 

 males belong exclusively the duties connected with 

 bringing forth new generations of their kind ; tO' 

 the workers falls the task of building the nest and 

 providing food. In some species of ants there is a 

 fourth order, called "soldiers." To these is rele- 

 gated the duty of defending the colon\ against the 

 attacks of their enemies. Here is as perfect an ex- 

 emplification of the principle of division of labor 

 as can be found in human society. The division of 

 employment is less minute, but the fitness for this 

 special task in these insect groups is far more per- 

 fect than that of the most adept craftsmen to their 

 special occupations. For, the insects have under- 

 gone bodily modification to fit them tor their spe- 

 cial duties. For example, in worker bees, parts that 

 are homologous to the reproductive organs in the 

 males, serve as stings ; it can scarcely be doubted 

 that here has been a modification of copulatorv 

 structures into organs of attack and defen.se. In 

 these insects, therefore, specialization has not onlv 



