Difficulties and Methods 19 



emphasizes their variability and modifiability through experi- 

 ence, he nevertheless believes that a gulf separates the human 

 from the animal mind. The term ''intelligence" which 

 most writers use to designate merely the power of learning 

 by individual experience, Wasmann would reserve for the 

 power of deducing and understanding relations, and would 

 assign only to human beings (425, 426). Although animals 

 have their instincts modified by sense experience, man 

 "stands through his reason and freedom immeasurably high 

 above the irrational animal that follows, and must follow, 

 its sensuous impulse without deliberation " (425). 



Forel, in the third place, is what is .called a monist in meta- 

 physics. That is, he does not believe either that mind and 

 body are parallel, or that they interact causally, but that they 

 are two aspects of the same reality. "Every psychic phe- 

 nomenon is the same real thing as the molecular or neurocymic 

 activity of the brain-cortex coinciding with it " (132, p. 7). 

 The psychic and the physical, on this theory, should be 

 coextensive; not merely should consciousness in some form 

 belong to all living things, but every atom of matter should 

 have its psychic aspect, n such a basis, Forel takes highly 

 optimistic views of the animal mind. In insects, of which he 

 has made a special study, it is, he thinks, "possible to demon- 

 strate the existence of memory, associations of sensory images, 

 perceptions, attention, habits, simple powers of inference 

 from analogy, the utilization of individual experience, and 

 hence distinct, though feeble, plastic individual deliberations 

 or adaptations " (132, p. 36). 



The second of the three groups into which we divided 

 present-day writers on the interpretation of animal behavior 

 contains those who maintain not that all animals are conscious, 

 but that those whose behavior meets a certain standard may 

 be so considered. The nature of this test is a difficult prob- 



