2O The Animal Mind 



lem. We shall therefore devote the next chapter to its con- 

 sideration; and as it necessarily plays an important part in 

 determining views regarding the animal mind, we shall ' 

 postpone for the present the discussion of the second group. 

 The third group contains those biologists, conservative or 

 radical according to one's own position, who deny to cojipar- 

 ative_^s^chologyjhejightjo exist. The eminent neurologist 

 Bethe is a typical representative of the class. In his study of 

 the behavior of ants and bees he refuses to allow these animals 

 any "psychic qualities" whatever, and suggests the term 

 "chemo-reception" instead of "smell," to designate the in- 

 fluence which directs most of their reactions, " smell" im- 

 plying a psychic quality (30). From his argument for the 

 probable absence of consciousness in ants and bees, as well 

 as in the crab (28), one might be inclined to put Bethe in the 

 second of the above-mentioned classes, for it is the lack of one 

 definite characteristic in the behavior of these animals, namely, 

 modification by individual experience, that makes him think 

 them unconscious. It becomes clear from other passages in 

 his writings, however, that he considers the presence of con- 

 sciousness even in animals that fein learn by experience, a 

 highly problematical and improper assumptidr!. In a foot- 

 note to a later article he says: " Psychic qualities cannot be 

 demonstrated. Even what we call sensation is known to 

 each man only in himself, since it is something subjective. 

 We possess the capacity of modifying our behavior [i.e. of 

 learning], and every one knows from his own experience that 

 psychic qualities play a part connected with this modifying 

 process. Every statement that another being possesses 

 psychic qualities is a conclusion from analogy, not a cer- 

 tainty; it is a matter of faith. If one wishes to draw this 

 analogical inference, it should be made where the capacity 

 for modification can be shown. When this is lacking, there 



