CHAPTER XVI. 



EXPRESSIVENESS OF ANIMAL LANGUAGE. 



LANGUAGE of whatever form- -among the lower animals is 

 used voluntarily and deliberately, or involuntarily, mainly 

 for the following purposes : 



1. To call each other or man, either particular individuals 

 or the various members of a family, or of a flock or herd. 

 These ' calls,' which are in an infinite variety of forms, 

 include 



a. Sexual calls for suitors or mates in the season of 

 sexual love, for the purposes of pairing. 



&. Maternal and parental calls to the young, having 

 reference chiefly to two great objects food-supply and pro- 

 tection from danger. 



c. Assembly calls to rally or collect, or keep together, 

 the scattering or scattered members of a flock or herd in 

 war, the march, or migration. 



d. Summonses for aid. 



2. To make intimations or announcements of 



a. Their intentions, purposes, plans including their 

 decisions. 



b. Their wants of all kinds including their urgency. 



c. Information or intelligence of various kinds relating, 

 for instance, to food, booty, or danger. 



3. To hold consultations deliberative councils, discussions, 

 or debates on important ( questions of the day ' concerning, 

 for instance, the necessity for war, the means of defence, the 

 sites of emigration-fields, or the time for migration. 



4. To conduct public trials, apparently by jury, including 

 advocacy, accusation, conviction, judgment, and punishment. 



