CONTOUR AND GENERAL APPEARANCE. 153 



In 1867, in a journey made along these coasts, Professor 

 Daa traversed the interior from Kola to the White Sea 

 and the Gulf of Bothnia, and had an opportunity of obser- 

 ving the causes of these apparently conflicting phenomena. 

 These are sufficiently simple. The formation of ice on the 

 surface of the ocean depends on the concurrence of many 

 causes, amongst which the cold is one of but relative 

 importance, ice is formed more easily in inland basins, 

 where the water is not so deep, is more mixed with fresh 

 water, and is less exposed to great ocean waves. It is 

 thus that the ice is formed in the Baltic, on the Zuyderzee, 

 and sometimes even in the Adriatic. It is then natural 

 that the interior parts of Norwegian fiords should also 

 freeze. The port of Christiana, for example, is for some 

 months closed by thick ice, which it is necessary to saw or 

 break up by means of powerful steam vessels. On the 

 contrary, on the margin of the ocean, the unceasing move- 

 ment of the waves hinders congelation. Again, the interior 

 waters offer the best protection for ships, and it is near to 

 them that are found the most convenient positions for 

 towns, and for communication with productive inland 

 lands. The Russians, a people more especially agricul- 

 tural, have built all their towns in interior localities, in 

 order that communication may be had by rivers with their 

 richest and most productive provinces. Now in inland 

 seas the ice is formed for many miles on end, and naviga- 

 tion becomes impossible during winter. The Norwegians, 

 who find their principal resources in navigation and fishing, 

 have preferred building their towns on the shores of the 

 ocean. The inconveniences thence resulting are many, 

 and the ports are only of middling character. The Nor- 

 wegian Assembly has been obliged to vote a sum of about 

 two millions of francs to improve the port of Vardoe. But 

 on the other hand, by nature or by art, it has been brought 

 about that navigation can be carried on there continuously 

 without interruption. It would, however, be erroneous to 

 suppose that Norway constitutes an exception to the known 

 laws of temperature, or that no natural obstacles to navi- 

 gation exist there. 



