340 



FARMER'S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK 



In general it should be remembered that 

 the shape of the front teeth gradually 

 changes with age. In young horses 

 they are wider from side to side than 

 from front to back; while in very old 

 horses they become thicker from front 

 to back than from side to side, showing 

 in many cases a triangular shape. At 

 six years the nippers become worn down 

 even with the middle teeth and the inner 

 edge of the corner teeth is also worn 

 down even with the outer one. The nip- 

 pers of the upper jaw take about two 

 years longer to wear down than those 

 of the lower, so that until a horse is 

 eight years old his age may be deter- 

 mined nearly as well by referring to the 

 upper nippers as by examining the lower 

 nippers at the age of six. 



At the age of seven the tushes become 

 dull at the point and somewhat rounded 

 by wear and both edges of the corner 

 teeth are smooth with a small cavity on 

 the face. The middle teeth have lost 

 their mark by this time and show an 

 even surface. From this age until 10 

 or 11, the incisor teeth of the upper jaw 

 are usually examined for determining 

 the age. Age is now indicated with 

 some accuracy by the amount of wear 

 upon the face of the teeth and by the 

 gradual disappearance of their marks 

 or cavities on the cutting surface. The 

 marks in the corner teeth become en- 

 tirely obliterated between seven and 

 eight years of age. The same process 

 takes place in the front teeth of the 

 upper jaws more slowly and when these 

 changes have occurred in the upper 

 teeth, the horse may be looked upon as 

 10 years of age. After this time the 

 determination of the age of the horse 

 involves more or less guess work; the 

 corner teeth become triangular and 

 deeper from front to back. By the age 

 of 20 or 21, the angles have disappeared 

 from the teeth and all teeth become oval. 

 The teeth gradually become deeper than 

 broad and as this process goes on the 

 space between the teeth increases. The 

 teeth also become of a dirty yellow color, 

 with occasional streaks of brown, and 

 the gums recede and waste away. 



Bishoping teeth — A common fraud- 

 ulent method of attempting to make the 

 horse's teeth look younger than they 

 really are is known as "bishoping." This 

 consists in using an engraver's toed to 

 dig out a slight groove on the biting 

 surface of the corner teeth. This cav- 

 ity is then burned with a hot iron to 



give it the black color which would be 

 seen in a six or seven-year-old horse. 

 The expert, however, has no difficulty 

 in distinguishing between this artificial 

 mark and the natural mark of the 

 younger horse. 



MULES AND ASSES 



Mule raising, like other lines of ani- 

 mal industry, has had its ups and downs, 

 but at present the outlook is bright. 

 Good mules are readily marketable at 

 a remunerative price — $140 to $250. 

 The active call for them is due partly 

 to their increased use for all purposes. 

 Many mules were needed for our Span- 

 ish war, and the English bought thou- 

 sands of them for shipment to South 

 Africa. Throughout the South they 

 have long been the favorite draft ani- 

 mal for work on the plantation and for 

 city use, and mules are being employed 

 more and more for similar purposes 

 in the northern states. According to 

 the last census there were 3,445,000 in 

 the United States and the Department 

 of Agriculture estimates the number at 

 2,890,000. 



Stock raisers in various foreign coun- 

 tries are rapidly awakening to a reali- 

 zation of the peculiar value of mules. 

 Thus in Jamaica, the mule industry is 

 in a much more flourishing condition 

 than horse breeding. The demand for 

 mules for use in the banana business 

 is so great and continuous that during 

 the past 12 years breeders have neglect- 

 ed horses and turned their attention to 

 mules, with the result that they are 

 now bred twice as extensively as horses. 

 Similarly the mule industry is growing 

 in South America, South Africa and 

 elsewhere. Many countries which have 

 hitherto given no heed to mules are be- 

 ginning to look into the business. 



The mule, as is commonly known, is 

 a hybrid between the mare and the male 

 ass or jack. The hybrid produced be- 

 tween the horse stallion and the female 

 ass or jennet, is known as a hinny. As 

 stated in Chapter I, hybrids may be 

 obtained by crossing any two species of 

 the horse family. These crosses have 

 been produced between the horse and 

 ass, zebra and quagga. While such 

 crosses are easily secured, the hybrid 

 animals are always sterile. Several in- 

 stances have been cited where mare 

 mules have been supposed to bear young. 



