THE IKR1GATION AGE. 



751 



by repeating the process after rains or floodings, they will 

 in time acquire a surface of grass or herbage. Light soils 

 should always be rolled, and the seeds should be "tread in" 

 when planted, a pat with the hoe not being sufficient, as in 

 the case of heavier soils, unless the seeds be very small. 

 Weather Affects Soil. 



Exposure to the atmosphere, speaking with reference to 

 soils, means "lying fallow," the only benefit of which, and 

 sometimes it is not a small one, is to expose insects and their 

 eggs, weeds and their seeds, to destruction. In climates where 

 there are severe winters and hard frosts, a hard, lumpy soil be- 

 comes pulverized by the action of the frost, and soils that have 

 become soured, sodden and baked by the tread of cattle or 

 other cause in wet weather, are more rapidly sweetened and 

 restored to friability by exposure to the hot sun of summer, 

 than by the frosts of winter. Some maintain that the only 

 benefit of fallow, that is, turning up the soil roughly to the 

 atmosphere, is to free the soil from the roots of weeds. 

 There is nothing, indeed, in the idea that the land "needs a 

 rest," for if properly cultivated, soil will keep on producing as 

 long as there are any elements capable of feeding plants. The 

 idea originated in ancient times when lack of help to till the 

 entire farm, or a deficient supply of manure, compelled the 

 suspension of cultivation on certain parcels or fields. It is 

 certain that what is called an "exhausted soil" obtains no 

 renewing material from the atmosphere. 



To alter a soil is to add or subtract the ingredients 

 which are lacking, or which exist in excess. The so-called 

 "alkali soils" are an illustration of excessive ingredients, and 

 any sterile, sandy or gravelly soil may be regarded as one 

 representing a deficiency of food producing elements. In case 

 of sterility, the only remedy is to add the ingredients lacking, 

 or convert sterile material into fertile ones by chemical means. 

 Thus : where in sterile soil, on washing it, there is found the 

 salts or iron or acid matters, the application of quicklime will 

 ameliorate it, and in a soil of apparently good texture, but 

 sterile on account of the sulphate of iron, a top dressing of 

 lime will afford a remedy by converting the sulphate into a 

 manure. 



If there be an excess of calcareous matter in the soil it 

 may be remedied by the application of sand or clay. Too 

 much sand is improved by clay, marl, or vegetable matter, 

 and light sands are benefited by a dressing of peats, and peats 

 improved by adding sand. The labor of thus improving the 

 texture or constitution of the soil is more than repaid by 

 the requirement of less manure, in fact, accretions in the 

 way of new soil are a natural manuring and insure the fer- 

 tility of the soil, where manure might be doubtful on account 

 of its adding an excess of organic matter, which is equally as 

 deleterious to plant growth as too much inorganic matter. 

 An equal number of tons of sand, clay, marl, or other nat- 

 ural soil, as of manure, will often tend to greater productive- 

 ness than from the addition of manure. When there is an 

 excess or superabundance of soil material, the problem of its 

 removal is much more difficult and serious, the reclamation of 

 alkali lands abundantly demonstrating this. Ordinary sand 

 and gravel may be plowed under, scraped from the surface, or 

 partly washed off by flooding, particularly where the lay of 

 the land is sloping. In the case of alkali, as has already been 

 said, drainage, or exhaustion of the soil by the cultivation of 

 gross feeding plants seems to be the reasonable remedy; at 

 all events is proves effectual. 



Effect of Fire on Soil. 



Burning over the soil was an ancient method, one 

 used by the Romans to alter the constituents of the soil, 

 the object being to render the soil less compact, less 

 tenacious, arid less retentive of moisture by destroying the 

 elements that tend toward holding it in a concrete con- 

 sistency. 



It is practiced in the United States for the same pur- 

 pose, but in the vast areas of the boundless West, where 

 a man is not limited to a small acreage of the soil, it is 

 not regarded as worth the labor, although it might in 

 many instances be beneficial. The soils improved by burn- 

 ing are all such as contain too much dead vegetable fiber, 

 by the burning of which they lose from one-third to one- 

 half of their weight. So stiff clays, adobes, hardpans, and 

 marls are improved by burning. But in the case of coarse 

 sands, or where the elements of the soil are properly bal- 

 anced, burning is detrimental, and the same is the case in 

 silicious sandy soils after they have once been brought 

 into cultivation. 



As to changing the condition of lands in respect to 



water, the subject belongs to irrigation, but it may be said 

 here in passing, the land should be cultivated, having in 

 mind the flowing of water, whether from irrigation or rain, 

 so as to avoid the accumulation of stagnant water, which 

 is injurious to all classes of useful plants. When the sur- 

 face soil is properly constituted and rests on a subsoil 

 moderately porous, both will hold water by capillary at- 

 traction, and what is not so retained will sink into the 

 substrata by its gravity; but when the subsoil is retentive, 

 it will resist the percolation of water to the strata below 

 and thus accumulate in the surface soil, and, making the 

 latter "soggy," will cause disease to the plants. Hence 

 the origin of surface draining, that is, laying land in ridges 

 or beds, or intersecting it with small, open gutters, a very 

 good practice where irrigating water is used, for into them 

 the water may be turned and then plowed over, left to 

 come up to the surface where the plant roots can reach 

 it. The alteration of land by water will be treated in 

 detail in its proper place under the head of "Irrigation." 



Value in Ridging Land. 



We have already referred to the effect of the sun's 

 rays on land, and add here that in cultivating, there is one 

 advantage in ridging lands and making the ridges run 

 north and south, for on such surfaces the rays of the 

 morning sun will take effect sooner on the east side, and 

 those of the afternoon on the west side, while at mid-day 

 the sun's elevation will compensate for the obliquity of its 

 rays to both sides of the ridge. In gardening there is 

 much advantage in observing this method of cultivation, 

 for the reason that much earlier crops may be produced 

 than on a level ground. Thus, sloping beds for winter 

 crops may be made southeast and northwest, with their 

 slope to the south, at an angle of forty degrees, and as 

 steep on the north side as the mass of earth can be got 

 to stand. On the south slope of such ground of course the 

 crops will be earlier than on level ground. There is little 

 advantage of this sloping, however, unless perfection of 

 garden produce is desirable, although the advantage of 

 sloping is a diminution of evaporation and also a ready 

 natural drainage. 



Although rotation of crops will be treated in a special 

 article, the subject has a bearing upon cultivation, or treat- 

 ment of the soil, since the necessity for a rotation of crops 

 seems to grow out of a diminution of certain plant foods 

 desirable to certain plants, and there are many species of 

 plants which require particular substances to bring their 

 seeds or fruits to perfection. It may be that these par- 

 ticular substances are in the soil but beyond the reach of 

 the plant. In that case it is clear that a thorough mixing 

 of the elements of the soil will bring the appropriate food 

 within reach of the plant, or, if that cannot be done, then 

 the planting of some other crop, and permitting it to return 

 back into the soil, will afford the required food for the 

 desired plant. In this place, cultivation and thorough mix- 

 ing is advised. In the proper chapter the whole subject 

 will be treated in detail. 



The following are some of the root and soil peculiari- 

 ^ies of well known plants: 



Wheat Has feeble roots at surface, but strong tap 

 roots penetrating deep into the soil. Stiff soil. 



Oats Next to wheat, will stand stiff soil, but the plant 

 throws out in the superficial layer of soil a number of fine 

 feeders in lateral directions, and hence the top soil should 

 be light and open. 



Barley It throws out a network of fine, short root 

 fibers of no great depth and requires a light, open' loam. 



Peas Requires a loose soil, with little cohesion, and 

 spread soft root fibers deep. 



Beans Ramify strong, woody roots in all directions, 

 even in a heavy and compact soil. 



Clover Grass seeds and small seeds generally out 

 forth at first feeble roots of small extent, and require so 

 much the greater care in preparing the soil to insure their 

 healthy growth. The pressure of a layer of earth a half 

 to one inch thick suffices to prevent germination. Such 

 seeds require only just as much earth to cover them as 

 will retain the needful moisture for germination. 



It is on the root that the farmer should bestow his 

 whole care. Over that which grows from it he has no 

 control, except perhaps in the way of pruning or bud 

 "pinching," as in the case of tobacco, melons, fruits, etc. 



