214 SPECIAL PHYSIOLOGY. 



uttered, is the broad d. In the same manner, the diphthong sounds i, 

 ei, eu, and the sounds of y and w, at the beginning of words, are vocal 

 tones, modified by further changes in the shape and form of the 

 mouth. 



Consonants, or shut sounds, are entirely formed in the parts above 

 the larynx, and are so named, because most, if not all, of them, can 

 only be sounded consonantly, that is, with another sound or vowel. 

 They require, for their production, a shutting or valve like action to 

 take place, either between the lips, as in pronouncing the letters b, p, 

 and m; or between the upper teeth and lower lip, as in the case of /and 

 v ; or between the tongue and the palate, as d, g hard, c hard, k, q, 

 t, r, I, and n; or between the tongue and teeth, as in the production 

 of hissing sounds, such as c soft, or s, and z. The compound articu- 

 late sounds, as /, or g soft, ch soft, ch guttural, ph, sh, th, ng, and x, 

 are produced by modifications, or combinations, of some of the other 

 pure consonant sounds. The aspirate h is produced by an increased 

 expiratory effort, made with the mouth open, before a vowel or other 

 sound. 



Those consonants which are produced by, or connected with, a sud- 

 den stoppage of the breath at a certain point, the opening leading 

 from the pharynx to the nose being quite closed, and all the respired 

 air passing through the mouth, are called explosive consonants. They 

 are of two kinds : the simple explosive consonants b, d, and g hard ; 

 and the aspirate explosives, p, t, k; these, when uttered, are unaccom- 

 panied by a vocal sound, that is, they are not attended with intonation 

 of the voice. Those consonants which can be pronounced without a 

 complete stoppage of the breath previous to their utterance, are called 

 continuous; some of these sounds are developed by the passage of the 

 air, with a degree of friction, through the mouth ; in this way, the 

 consonants v, f, s, and z, are produced ; others are produced by expi- 

 ration through the nose only, as ng, m, and n. In uttering the letters 

 I and r, the air escapes through the nose and mouth ; in pronouncing 

 the first of these, the air escapes at the sides of the tongue ; in pro- 

 nouncing the second, the tongue undergoes a vibratory movement. 

 All the continuous consonants can be pronounced with a vocal sound, 

 except the aspirate h; and some of them can be pronounced either 

 with or without vocal intonation. Consonants have also been named 

 according to the seat of their production ; thus p is called a labial, t 

 a palatal, n a nasal, and the Gaelic ch a guttural consonant ; but this 

 classification is exceedingly artificial and incorrect ; for the greater 

 number of articulate sounds are the result of the conjoined action of 

 the'mouth, lips, palate, and upper part of the air-passage. 



Many sounds can be generated in the mouth, or throat, totally in- 

 dependent of any laryngeal action ; thus, the smacking or clicking 

 sounds, which occur in some of the African languages, are produced 

 merely by separating the tongue sharply, from the hard or soft palate ; 

 in the emission of such sounds, neither breath nor voice is requisite. 

 Many other familiar sounds, such as kissing, and smacking the lips as 

 an expression of relish, are of a similar character. Whistling, also, is 

 wholly unconnected with the voice, being a true mouth-sound, de- 



