504 FALLACIES. 



Stands upon the very threshold of the subject, and intercepts all at- 

 tempts to throw light upon it. 



Another ambiguous expression which continually meets us in the 

 political controversies of the present time, especially in those which 

 relate to organic changes, is the phrase "influence of property;" 

 which is sometimes used for the influence of respect for superior in- 

 telligence, or gratitude for the kind offices which persons of large 

 property have it so much in their power to bestow ; at other times for 

 the hifluence of fear; fear of the worse sort of power, which large 

 property also gives to its possessor, the power of doing mischief to 

 dependents. To confound these two, is the standing fallacy of ambi- 

 guity brought against those who seek to purify our electoral system 

 from corruption and intimidation. " The influence of property is 

 beneficial:" granted, if the former species of influence and that alone 

 be meant; but conclusions are thence drawn in condemnation of 

 expedients which (like secret voting, for example) would deprive 

 property of some of its influences, though only of the latter and bad 

 kind. Persuasive influence, acting through the conscience of the 

 voter, and carrying his heart and mind with it, is beneficial — there- 

 fore we are to infer that coercive influence, which compels him to 

 forget that he is a moral agent, or to act in opposition to his moral 

 convictions, ought not to be placed under restraint. 



Another word which is often turned into an instrument of the fallacy 

 of ambiguity is Theory. In its most proper acceptation, theory means 

 the completed result of philosophical induction from experience. In 

 that sense, there are erroneous as well as true theories, for induction 

 may be incorrectly performed, but theory of some sort is the necessary 

 result of knowing anything of a subject, and having put one's knowl- 

 edge into the form of general propositions for the guidance of practice. 

 In another and more vulgar sense, theory means any mere fiction of 

 the imagination, endeavoring to conceive how a thing may possibly 

 have been produced, instead of examining how it was produced. In 

 this sense only are theory, and theorists, unsafe guides ; but because 

 of this, ridicule or discredit is attempted to be attached to theory in its 

 proper sense, that is, to legitimate generalization, tlie end and aim of 

 all philosophy; and a conclusion is represented as worthless, just 

 because that has been done, which if done coiTectly constitutes the 

 highest worth that a principle for the guidance of practice can possess, 

 namely, to comprehend in a few words the real law on which a phe- 

 nomenon depends, or some property or relation which is universally 

 true of it. 



" The Church" is sometimes understood to mean the clergy alone, 

 sometimes the whole body of believers, or at least of communicants. 

 The declamations respecting the inviolability of church property are 

 indebted for the gi-eater part of their apparent force to this ambiguity. 

 The clergy, being called the church, are supposed to be the real ownei^s 

 of what is called church property; whereas they are in tl'uth only tlie 

 managing member's of a much larger body of pro})rietors, and enjoy 

 on their own part a mere usufruct, not extending beyond a life interest. 



The following is a favorite argument of Plato. No one desires evil, 

 knowing it to be so : to do wrong is evil ; therefore no one desires to 

 do vn-ong knovdng that which he desires, but only in consequence of 

 ignorance. In this syllogism the ambiguous word is the middle term, 



