Causes wbicb Betermfne tbe Climate. 363 



fore, has to be colder than the latter. That is the reason why Russian 

 Poland, that has no mountains between its territory and the pole, has 

 during winter a temperature as cold as that of Sweden, whilst Hungary, 

 which is protected on the north by the Carpathian Mountains, enjoys 

 a pleasant climate similar to that of Germany. 



4. Proximity or Distance from the Sea. The waters of the ocean 

 have a more uniform temperature than the earth, and preserve, for that 

 reason, a proportionate uniformity whenever their influence can be felt, 

 moderating the cold as well as the heat. A cold wind passing over 

 the surface of the ocean becomes somewhat heated, and in turn a hot 

 wind becomes cooler. That is why the climate of islands and of 

 countries bordering on the ocean, is more uniform than that of coun- 

 tries situated at a great distance from the sea, and such countries also 

 enjoy more moderate winters, and their summers are cooler. 



We may state, for example, that the average temperature of Eng- 

 land, which is an island, is about 65 in summer and about 37 in 

 winter, which merely gives a difference of 26, whilst the average tem- 

 perature of Pekin, removed from the sea, is 79 in summer and 23 in 

 winter, which gives a difference of 56. 



5. The Inclination which the Country Bears to the Course of the Sun. 

 The angle at which the sun's rays fall on a locality, and consequently 

 its heating power, varies according to the position of the soil of such 

 locality. When the sun is 45 above the horizon, its rays must fall 

 perpendicularly on the side of a hill looking towards the south, and 

 forming likewise an angle of 45 : whilst the plain below the hill will 

 receive the sun's rays at an angle of 45. 



6. The Geological Character of the Soil. The kind of soil of a locality 

 has a great influence on the climate, principally on account of its 

 greater or less adaptability to irradiate the heat. Sandy soil is heated 

 easily and quickly, and when the sun's rays do not fall on it it irra- 

 diates easily and thereby communicates a portion of its heat to the 

 atmosphere. Earthy soil, on the contrary, absorbs less easily the heat, 

 and irradiates it more slowly, and so it communicates less heat to the 

 atmosphere. Marshy lands and forests cool the air. 



7. The Degree of Cultivation of the Soil. Cutting or grading and the 

 reclaiming of marshy lands renders warmer the temperature of a local- 

 ity. The complete destruction of forests may be fatal to a region 

 because thereby it may be deprived of a protection against certain 

 winds, or diminish humidity in a greater scale, be it through the de- 

 crease in the rainfall in places having no vegetation, or because the 

 evaporation of the leaves of vegetable matter ceases. 



8. Prevailing Winds. The winds prevailing in a locality have great 

 influence on its temperature. The winds may be cold or warm, ac- 

 cording to the place whence they come and the kind of surface over 



