234 TOTEMISM AND EXOGAMY 



the first question with which we have to grapple, 

 and it is not surprising that more than one hypo- 

 thesis has been put forward to account for the 

 origin of the custom. Professor Frazer, during the 

 years in which he has ruminated over these matters, 

 has himself put forward and abandoned two theories 

 and now stands by a third, of which more in a 

 moment. Let us briefly recapitulate these views. 



(z) The theory of Herbert Spencer and, with 

 some modifications, of Lord Avebury, that totem- 

 ism originated in a misinterpretation of nicknames. 

 Professor Frazer rules this out of court because 

 these theories " attribute to verbal misunderstand- 

 ings far more influence than verbal misunder- 

 standings ever seem to have exercised " (iv., 44). 



(it) The Dutch writer, G. A. Wilken, held that 

 totemism was explained by the belief in the trans- 

 migration of souls, but according to Professor 

 Frazer, whose reasoning here, based on the sup- 

 posed primitive character of the Australians, does 

 not by any means satisfy us, " metempspriychosis 

 is a later product of social evolution than totemism 

 of which indeed it may sometimes be an effect 

 rather than the cause " (iv., 47). 



(iii) The view of many American anthropolo- 

 gists, that totems were derived from the personal 

 guardian spirits of individuals. Thus the founder 

 of a clan acquired his totem, after the American 

 method, by a vision, and this totem subsequently 

 became that of the clan which he founded. This 

 explanation, which would be admirable if there 

 were none but American conditions to be inquired 

 into, does not, it must be admitted, fall into line 



