8 USEFUL OR HARMFUL? 



nature itself knows neither useful nor noxious birds, but 

 only necessary ones, which have developed according to 

 the laws of nature, and on the basis of their development 

 are performing in the world of nature the work which is 

 appropriate to their organism. 



The manifold character of the work performed by 

 birds is in harmony with the variety of these organisms. 



The question of the usefulness and noxiousness of 

 birds during the whole of the nineteenth century was 

 treated only approximately, upon the assertions of 

 authorities. When, later on, Congresses began to 

 embrace the cause of bird-protection, and the question of 

 the usefulness or noxiousness of each species assumed a 

 role of the first importance, it turned out that there was 

 no firm basis upon which to rely, in passing judgment. 

 Eminent ornithologists were often at variance with 

 regard to the usefulness or noxiousness of a particular 

 sepcies. 



Where Nature is intact, the number of birds is 

 automatically regulated in accordance with the natural 

 development of their surroundings. 



The conceptions of "useful" and "noxious" are 

 merely human ones; and man can, by cultivation or 

 the contrary, alter the normal conditions ; and may, con- 

 sequently, modify the character and habits of birds also. 

 Agriculture on a large scale, modern forestry, the drain- 

 ing of territory all these things alter the fundamental 

 conditions of animal life, and in consequence of bird-life 

 also; and if these modifications in respect of birds are 

 injurious to man, it is in the interests of man to adapt 

 them artificially for the benefit of birds ; and if by 

 cultivation man deprives useful birds of their natural 

 nesting facilities, he ought to provide them with 



