322 THE BOOK OF THE LANDED ESTATE. 



on in winter the land may be wet, and not in such a state as will show 

 its true character. But, in walking over an estate, the surface should 

 not only be examined, but the subsoil also, and this must be got at by 

 digging to it ; therefore a valuer should have an assistant with him, who 

 should carry a spade for use when required. Generally speaking, the 

 subsoil will be found very different from the upper soil, although some- 

 times this is not the case. 



On nearly all landed estates many different kinds of soil will be 

 found. In low-lying valleys the soil is generally rich, having been 

 deposited there by floods from time to time ; in upland districts, again, 

 or midway between the lower valleys and the hills, the soils are gener- 

 ally either light loams, sandy soils, or clays ; and in the upper parts 

 of the country the soils met with are a kind of sandy peat. I shall 

 make a few remarks on each of the kinds of soil which are usually met 

 with in this country. 



Clay Soils. Clay enters into the composition of many of our soils in 

 a greater or less degree, but what we term a clay soil is one which con- 

 tains not less than fifty per cent of clay. A soil of this description, if 

 the subsoil is porous, will be found a good soil for cropping by being 

 properly stirred up. If the subsoil is of the same nature, there will 

 be more difficulty in procuring good crops from it. It could, of course, 

 be much improved by drainage ; and on being thoroughly drained, and 

 made rich with manure, it will also yield fair crops, although at a 

 greater expense than the first kind. All clay soils are much colder 

 than other soils, from the heat of the sun being prevented from 

 penetrating into them. Dry weather is very favourable to the working 

 of all clay soils ; and if they are thoroughly drained, they can be worked 

 more advantageously. If this is not done, they will lie full of water 

 all winter, and in the summer season they become baked and cracked 

 from the heat. They all require more labour and power to work them 

 than any other kind of soil. The great point is to get them as free as 

 possible from water, and then they can be worked to advantage. The 

 following is the composition of a clay soil as stated by Donaldson : 



Silica, 0.35 



Alumina, 32.05 



Lime, . . 0.35 



Oxide of iron, 0.45 



Sulphuric acid, 19.35 



Water, 47.00 



Calcareous Soils. These soils contain a large amount of lime, and are 

 found on the chalk and limestone formations. Professor Johnston 

 states that in 1000 Ib. of a calcareous soil there are 56 Ib. of lime, and 



