286 PHYLUM ARTHROPODA. 



It is likely that some of the crowded mouth-parts, e.g. the firsi 

 maxillae, are almost functionless. The hard toothed knob which forms 

 the greater part of the mandible is obviously well adapted to its crush- 

 ing work. 



In connection with the skeleton, the student should also notice the 

 beak (rostrum) projecting between the eyes ; the triangular area 

 (epistoma) in front of the mouth, and the slight upper and lower lips ; 

 and the lateral flaps of the body wall which project the gills. Each 

 posterior segment consists of a dorsal arch (tergum), side flaps (pleura), 

 a ventral bar (sternum), while the little piece between the pleuron and 

 the socket of the limb is dignified by the name of epimeron. The 

 hindmost piece (telson), on which the food canal ends ventrally, is 

 regarded by some as a distinct segment. The most difficult fact to 

 understand clearly, is that the cuticle of certain appendages (e.g. 

 the mandibles), and of the ventral region of the thorax, is folded inwards, 

 forming chitinous " tendons" or insertions for muscles, and, above all, 

 constituting the complex, apparently, but not really, internal, 

 " endophragmal " skeleton of the thorax, protecting the ventral nerve- 

 cord and venous blood sinus. 



Muscular system. The muscles are white bundles of 

 fibres, which on minute examination show clearly that trans- 

 verse striping which is always well marked in rapidly con- 

 tracting elements. The muscles are inserted on the, inner 

 surface of the cuticle, or on its internal foldings (apodematd). 

 The most important sets are (i) the dorsal extensors or 

 straighteners of the tail ; (2) the twisted ventral muscles, 

 most of which are flexors or benders of the tail, which have 

 harder work, and are much larger than their opponents ; 

 (3) those moving the appendages ; (4) the bands which 

 work the gastric mill. 



Nervous system. The supra-cesophageal nerve-centres 

 or ganglia, forming the brain, have been shunted far forward 

 by the growth of the pre-oral region. We thus understand 

 how the nerve-ring round the gullet, connecting the brain 

 with the ventral chain of twelve paired ganglia, is so wide. 



The dorsal or supra-cesophageal ganglia are three-lobed, 

 and give off nerves to eyes, antennules, antennae, and food 

 canal, besides the commissures to the sub-cesophageal 

 centres. They act as a true brain. 



The sub-cesophageal ganglia, the first and largest of the 

 ventral dozen, innervate the six pairs of appendages about 

 the mouth. There are other five ganglia in the thorax, and 

 six more in the abdomen. 



Though the ganglia of each pair are in contact, the 



