92 ECONOMICS OF FORESTRY. 



out detriment to future crops was determined, 

 the better kind of timber being more economically 

 cut, and the timber to be cut was designated by 

 officials, whose duty it was to superintend the fell- 

 ing, the removal, and even the use of the same. 

 By and by even the firewood was designated, the 

 dead and inferior material being assigned for it. 

 Charring and boxing for resin were carried on 

 under precautions. The number of swine to be 

 allowed in the oak and beech forests was deter- 

 mined according to the quantity of seed mast. 

 Grazing in the woods was allowed only under cer- 

 tain regulations as to districts and number of cattle 

 for every " Marker." The great damage by sheep 

 and goats was recognized and their pasturing in 

 the woods prohibited as early as 1158. Even an 

 Arbor-day was anticipated in some parts, each 

 man having to plant, under the supervision of the 

 forester, a number of trees proportionate to his 

 consumption. 



In 1368, the city of Nuremberg began on a larger 

 scale systematic reforestation of waste lands with 

 pines, which was imitated by other communities, 

 and we have documentary evidence that in 1491 a 

 regular system of annual sowings of oak was in 

 existence in the communal forests of Seligenstadt. 

 By the end of the fifteenth century, indeed, fully 

 organized forest administrations existed, and various 

 " Forstordnungen " (forest ordinances) prescribed 

 in detail the manner of exploiting and reestablish- 



