86 ANATOMY OF VERTEBRATES. 



1 rank by a pair of condyles, fig. 72, e, c, is resumed. The chief steps 

 in the developement of the batrachiaii skull will be premised before 

 entering upon the various modifications. In the larva of the frog, 

 fig. 42, the outer layer of the notochordal capsule expands at the 

 fore part of that vertebral basis to enclose the brain, and its appen- 

 dages, the sense-organs. The cartilage therein developed, fig. 68, 

 as the head expands, forms an occipito-petrosal mass, fig. 42, 

 16, including laterally the ear-capsules ; it bifurcates anteriorly 

 into the ' sphenoidal arches,' which reunite in front of an oblong 

 hypophysial space to form a broad prefronto-vomerine mass. The 

 occipito-petrosal cartilage sends out on each side a thick ' masto- 

 tympanic ' process, which bifurcates ; the division directed for- 

 ward and inward fig. 42, 26, is the ( pterygoid ; ' that passing- 

 forward and downward is the ' hypotympanic' To the back part- 

 is attached the hyoid cartilage, ib. 40 : to the end is attached the 

 * mandibular' cartilage, ib. 30, fig. G9a, d, also called 'Meckel's 

 process.' The subsequent ossification begins partly in the carti- 

 lage, partly in the persistent notochordal membrane : the first 

 may be called ' chondrogenous,' the second ' sclerogenous ' bones : 

 some are disposed to regard the first only as ' endoskeletal,' the 

 latter as ' exoskeletal.' 



To the first category belong the neurapophyses of the occiput, 

 exoccipitals, figs. 43 and 68, 2 ; each of which developes a ' zygapo- 

 physis ' or condyle, fig. 73, e, for the atlas, fig, 43, a : 

 any petrosal ossification upon the ear-capsule is a 

 growth from the exoccipital and from the alisphe- 

 noid, ib. 6 : the expanded disc of the ' columella ' or 

 ' stapes ' is a distinct ossicle, between 2 and 25, 

 fig. 43 ; as is also the ' hypotympanic ' articulation, 

 ib. 29, for the mandible, 30, 32. The neurapophyses 

 of the third segment, ' orbitosphenoid,' figs. 42 and 



Incipient ossification „ f , , , * . „ , 



of the skuii. Larva 43, io, perforated by the optic nerves, are ossified 

 in the cartilaginous basis, as are those of the 

 fourth segment (prefrontals), figs. 42, 44, 68, 14, perforated by 

 the olfactory nerves ; whilst those of the second segment, ' ali- 

 sphenoids,' ib. 6, perforated by the trigeminal, longer remain 

 gristly. All the chondrogenous elements are thick bones. 



From the membranous basis of the skull are developed the 

 following bones, which are more or less lamelliform. The basi- 

 occipito-sphenoidal plate, fig. 73, m, forms the base of the skull 

 from the condyles to the vomerine cartilage. The mastotym- 

 panic, fig. 43, 25, fig. 44, 8, 25, fig. 68, 8, extends from the 

 mastoid cartilage, where it is broadest, to the outside of the 



