Chapter 21 



PSYCHOLOGICAL CAUSES AND RESULTS OF STRESS 



ERNEST A. HAGGARD 

 University of Chicago 



Introduction 



Emotional stress and high morale, while 

 radically different in some respects, are nev- 

 ertheless similar in others. Emotional stress 

 is experienced by an individual when his 

 general well-being is jeopardized in an emer- 

 gency situation which threatens the sat- 

 isfaction of his basic physiological or 

 psychological needs. In such a case, the 

 individual's capacity to keep from going 

 to pieces is severely taxed and he tends to 

 collapse. He is, or feels he is, unable and 

 disinclined to cope with the situation. The 

 experience of fear and anxiety, the disrup- 

 tion of various physiological and psychologi- 

 cal functions, and the disintegration of habit- 

 ual skills and techniques for dealing with 

 reality are characteristic reactions in a stress- 

 producing situation. Breakdown will re- 

 sult if the stress is sufficiently intense and 

 enduring. Morale, on the other hand, re- 

 flects an optimal state of adjustment in 

 which the individual experiences a strong 

 sense of belonging to the group, has zest 

 and enthusiasm for his work, and feels a 

 secure confidence in his ability to master 

 reality, both present and future, and desires 

 to do so. 



In considering the various aspects of prob- 

 lems involved in the causes and results of 

 emotional stress, the individual will be 

 thought of as an integrated, self -regulating 

 system of abilities and needs, with conse- 

 quent strivings for their satisfaction (cf . 14, 

 53). This concept applies to various levels 

 of complexity, ranging from the basic bodily 

 needs to such acquired psychological needs 

 as self-esteem and acceptance by one's fel- 

 lows. On each level, the individual is so 



built that he tends to maintain a relatively 

 stable state of equilibrium or adjustment. 

 Any severe or prolonged interference with 

 the satisfaction of needs on any level will 

 ultimately threaten the integration of the 

 total individual. When this happens, the 

 individual characteristically gives "danger 

 signals" — such as hunger, pain, anxiety, or 

 neurotic symptoms — which indicate that all 

 is not well. Basic stress-producing threat 

 may result from situational factors, from 

 disturbances in the person's inner adjust- 

 ment, or from difficulties in the individual's 

 relation to a situation and his inability to 

 master it. 



Causes of Emotional Stress 



In terms of a given situation, there are 

 many fundamental or predisposing causes 

 within the person which may underlie 

 the development of emotional stress. Apart 

 from obvious physical, mental or emotional 

 deficiencies, a wide range of individual dif- 

 ferences may play a real, even though hidden, 

 role in the person's ability to tolerate stress. 

 Basic energy reserves and thresholds for 

 exhaustion, undue sensitivity to intense 

 stimuli, the effects of differences in glandular 

 functions on endurance, etc., are some of the 

 factors which might throw the balance one 

 way or another in a critical situation. 



Personality Structure 



One important but little investigated fac- 

 tor is the possible effect of an individual's 

 personality stnicture (or character structure) 

 on the development of emotional stress in 

 a given situation. Personality stmcture de- 

 termines, to a large extent, the subtle and 



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