Chapter 22 

 MORALE AND LEADERSHIP 



ROBERT L. FRENCH 



Northwestern University 



Introduction 



Other chapters of this volume deal pri- 

 marily with two types of problems: the de- 

 sign of material facilities for efficient human 

 use, and the design, so to speak, of human 

 individuals for most efficient use of these 

 facilities. The problem of morale and lead- 

 ership concerns the effectiveness with which 

 these individuals employ their resources 

 when brought together into a functioning 

 group — submarine crew, office force, training 

 center staff, research unit, or whatever the 

 case may be. Obviously these various prob- 

 lems are not clearly distinct ; all relate to the 

 same ultimate objective, and to a consider- 

 able extent all demand the application of 

 similar concepts and methods. However, 

 the study of functioning groups requires at- 

 tention not simply to the actions or potential 

 actions of individuals considered as isolated 

 units, but also, and primarily, to the com- 

 plex forms of interaction between individuals 

 which characterize a group. In this respect 

 the study of problems of morale and leader- 

 ship probably calls for supplementary con- 

 cepts and methods, perhaps quite different 

 in nature from those appropriate in individ- 

 ual psychology. 



Despite an enormous literature dealing 

 with such topics as morale and leadership, 

 the actual scientific study of group processes 

 is of relatively recent origin. Hence, the 

 necessary methodological and conceptual 

 tools are still in an embryonic stage, and our 

 knowledge of group functioning is accord- 

 ingly meager. This chapter cannot, there- 

 fore, present a record of accomplishment and 

 define precisely the steps to be taken next. 



Nor will it attempt simply to review the lit- 

 erature. Rather, an effort will be made to 

 outline what seem to be the major problems, 

 and within this framework to suggest on the 

 basis of relevant findings and available tech- 

 niques some further questions that might be 

 asked and approaches that might be taken. 



The Problem of Group Effectiveness 

 Some Aspects of Institutional Groups 



The formal structure of a large institution 

 such as a navy consists of many diverse and 

 interrelated groups. For our purposes, we 

 may consider a group in the formal sense to 

 be any aggregate of two or more individuals 

 which is regarded administratively as a unit, 

 whether it be a fleet or a maneuvering room 

 watch. Within an institutional organiza- 

 tion, groups may vary in many ways. Cer- 

 tain of their characteristics are defined by 

 orders from superior authority. These com- 

 monly include: general objectives; size; for- 

 mal structural differentiation with respect to 

 sub-groupings and individual roles, responsi- 

 bilities and authority; formal relationships 

 to other groups ^vithin the organization; gen- 

 eral provisions for admission or release of 

 members; relatively permanent material 

 equipment (e.g., a submarine); and so on. 

 A number of groups within the organization 

 may be highly similar in their formal charac- 

 teristics (e.g., submarine crews), in which 

 case we may speak of a "type" of group. 



Certain other group characteristics are less 

 amenable to official regulation, and with 

 respect to these, groups even of the same for- 

 mal type may vary widely. Such character- 

 istics involve the personal characteristics of 



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