FACTORS RELATED TO GROUP EFFECTIVENESS 



473 



to exist in other groups. At the same time, 

 the opinions which other people hold toward 

 a group may influence the opinions of the 

 group toward itself. 



Competition between groups may spur 

 effectiveness. Also, where cooperation be- 

 tween groups is necessary to effective per- 

 formance, morale may be involved. The 

 failure of another group on w^hich success or 

 safety depends, or conditions creating lack 

 of confidence in it, may contribute to low 

 morale. Lack of confidence in supporting 

 groups may also serve, of course, to indicate 

 low morale arising from other causes: wit- 

 ness the scapegoating of rear echelons by 

 front echelons, of civilians by military 

 groups, and vice-versa. Scapegoating may 

 function to preserve unity in a group, but 

 when its targets are cooperating groups or 

 individuals, the overall effects may be un- 

 desirable. Investigation is needed of the 

 conditions under which scapegoating can be 

 directed to advantage in cases where con- 

 ditions causing discontent cannot be rem- 

 edied. 



Additional influences on morale may stem 

 from individuals' memberships in other 

 groups, notably families. The effects of bad 

 news from home on soldiers or sailors are 

 proverbial. Such influences do not initially 

 affect all members of a group, but, pre- 

 sumably depending upon the position of the 

 individual involved, the effects may con- 

 ceivably spread to other individuals. Stud- 

 ies of communication within groups would 

 enlighten us on this and related points (e.g., 

 spread of rumors) and perhaps suggest pro- 

 phylactic measures. 



Factors Peculiar to Combat 



Considered in terms of psychological 

 processes, there are perhaps no factors pe- 

 cuhar to combat; for some groups or in- 

 dividuals, at any rate, deprivation, danger, 

 anxiety, may be extreme under quite "peace- 

 ful" circumstances. For others combat may 

 provide a release from tension. But the 

 tremendous increase in stress which combat 



entails in most cases poses additional, or 

 different, problems in the practical control 

 of morale. 



Length of combat tour is undoubtedly a 

 factor, but its relative importance must ob- 

 viously depend upon the particular situa- 

 tion. WTien infantrjmaen overseas were 

 asked by the Research Branch (50), "If 

 you had a chance to change one thing in the 

 Army, what would you change?", their most 

 frequent response (26%) was to suggest ro- 

 tating front and rear-echelon troops, setting 

 a time limit on combat, etc. On the basis 

 of interviews with naval fliers whose or- 

 ganizations had been in combat from seven 

 to nine months, Darley (26) concluded that 

 length of tour was much less important for 

 combat effectiveness than some other fac- 

 tors, among them "adherence to a promised 

 relief date." Quite probably the setting of 

 a definite relief date and strict adherence 

 to it would be important in all situations. 



Intensity of combat, and number and dis- 

 tribution of losses, are among the more im- 

 portant factors mentioned in the study re- 

 ported by Darley. Losses have the obvious 

 effects not only of disrupting organization, 

 especially if they involve key men, but of 

 augmenting anxiety among men who re- 

 main. In some cases survivors may expe- 

 rience guilt over the fact that they have sur- 

 vived (57) .^ On the other hand, conceivably 

 a few losses may, by heightening awareness 

 of the seriousness of a situation, increase 

 determination and effort. This would prob- 

 ably hold primarily for inexperienced units 

 not thrust too suddenly into extremely dan- 

 gerous combat. 



Severe combat can also make for greater 

 solidarity among members of a group, 

 though this may or may not contribute to 



* Child (21) has suggested that guilt consequent 

 on killing the enemy must play an important part 

 in morale, and this may be true of many individ- 

 uals, at least transiently, but more commonly 

 guilt seems to be attached to feelings of not hav- 

 ing more dangerous jobs, of having let the outfit 

 down, and so on. 



