VoL. x1.] SEVERE WINTER’S EFFEC ON BIRDS. 267 
the scanty supplies of food still available and so caused death 
by starvation. In particular, the “glazed frosts,”’ which 
covered even the tree trunks with a thin film of ice, probably 
proved specially fatal to the Creepers, Tits and other tree- 
haunting species. 
That somewhat similar results have followed lengthened 
periods of frost and snow is shown from the somewhat scanty, 
but still significant, references to previous hard winters, 
Even as far back as 1408 Walsingham, in his Historia 
Anglicana, states that the winter was very severe, lasting 
through December, January, February and March, whence 
it came to pass that almost all the birds of the Thrush and 
Blackbird kind perished. ‘‘ Unde contigit pene cunctas 
volucres de genere maviscorum vel merularum fame frigore- 
que perire.” For this reference we have to thank Professor 
Oman. 
The winter of 1838 is also noted for its severity and is said 
to have been fatal to many birds, and the extremely severe 
weather which lasted from the end of January intermittently 
to almost the end of March, 1855 (the memorable Crimean 
winter), proved not only destructive to residents, but also 
caused great mortality among the earlier summer visitors. 
In the case of such species as the Swallow and the Martins, 
this may have been directly attributable to cold, but it must 
be remembered that the same conditions would also cause 
the disappearance of insect life. Some interesting details 
of the effects of this winter may be found in an article by 
C. Collingwood entitled, ‘‘ Calendar of Natural Phenomena 
observed at Purley Park, Berks ”’ (Zool. 1855, pp. 4725-38). 
For its effects on the Hirwndinide in the Midland counties 
see J. J. Briggs. (t.c. pp. 4808-9). 
The winter of 1860 was also severe, but not prolonged, 
and that of 1878-79 was remarkable for extreme cold from 
December 8th to 25th, and again for a week in January, 1878. 
The winter of 1880-81 holds the record for intensity, the 
cold spell beginning January 9th-l0th and ending January 
26th. Several references to its effect on animal life may be 
found in the Zoologist, 1881, pp. 196-7, 212 and 255 (Ireland). 
Fuller details are obtainable in the case of the great frost 
of 1890-91, which chiefly affected the south-eastern counties 
of England. This is very thoroughly treated in an article 
by A. W. Preston in the T’rans. Norf. and Norw. Nat. Soc., V., 
pp. 191-195. The lowest mean temperature during this 
period, which extended from November 25th, 1890, to J: anuary 
22nd, 1891 (59 days), was registered in Hertfordshire (28'5°), 
and for forty consecutive days the ground was covered with 
