CARLETON S. COON 
the same time they are nations. People who live by food 
production and industry are members of nations which, as a 
rule, contain more than one breeding population, and the 
maintenance of equilibrium is to that extent a more complicated 
business. 
HUMAN EVOLUTION, PRE-SAPIENS BEHAVIOUR, AND THE 
DIFFERENTIATION OF INSTITUTIONS 
During the vast expanse of the Pleistocene, in which man 
evolved, breeding populations and nations were small. Only 
during the past eight or nine millenia can any have grown 
much larger. It may therefore be that Homo sapiens is primarily 
adapted to living in small, simply organized, face-to-face groups, 
and this is perhaps true of the vast majority of mankind today. 
In much of Europe, the Middle East, China, and India, 
villagers still have the same kind of relationships that they have 
had since the beginning of the Neolithic, and even in cities 
everywhere, the ordinary people live in small, more or less well 
defined neighbourhoods. In every society, however, there have 
been exceptional individuals capable of interaction on a large 
scale. They have been the leaders in many kinds of activities, 
the creators and maintainers of large and complex institutions. 
To arrive at this condition Homo sapiens had to evolve out 
of his parent species, Homo erectus, and this process was probably 
primarily concerned with human relations, because no sharp 
break can be seen between the two species in technology, as 
seen dimly through the evidence of stone implement types, 
kinds of animals eaten, and ways of breaking animal bones. 
Even fire was used by Homo erectus, at least in China. The rise of — 
Homo sapiens is indicated almost entirely by changes in the size 
and apparent structure of the brain and probably of the 
pituitary. There is some evidence that Homo sapiens matures 
later in the human life cycle than his ancestor, and lives longer. 
It would be unwarranted to dwell at length on the social 
behaviour of Homo erectus, who has left the earth forever, except 
to remind you of a few firm points. He hunted, and hunting 
requires group activity. He fought his fellows, as evidenced by 
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