8 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 195 



the rainfall varies considerably and short dry spells may occur. The 

 annual amount of snowfall varies from a few inches to several feet, 

 with a mean of 30.6. 



The Ponca country is part of a broad, nearly level plain which slopes 

 gently downward toward the south and east (pi. 18). However, the 

 Missouri River is so deeply entrenched along the northern edge of Knox 

 County that much of the drainage locally is northward to that stream. 

 About 90 percent of the land is upland and the remainder is alluvial. 

 The land surfaces range from gently rollmg to extremely rough and 

 broken. Most of the upland area has been rather severely eroded, and 

 this area includes a wide variety of wind- and water- formed physio- 

 graphic features. Wlien viewed from the crest of one of the Missouri 

 bluffs, the landscape of the Ponca "heartland" is most inspiring. Tall, 

 rounded, hills slope downward to rich green bottom lands. Away to 

 the north stretches the mighty Missouri, outlined by its white chalk 

 banks, the burial gTOund of unnumbered generations of Ponca. 



Ponca villages, like the Middle Mississippi towns of the South- 

 east, were almost always located on river or creek terraces, prefer- 

 ably at a fork where a tributary entered a larger stream. The gardens 

 were on nearby bottom lands which could be easily cultivated with 

 a bison scapula hoe. The soils of the area, though not equally pro- 

 ductive, are as a whole well suited to agriculture. The nearby hills 

 and gullies provided both game and wild roots and berries. 



Deposits of metal are significantly lacking in this area, but clay 

 and sand suitable for ceramics are abundant at many places along 

 the Missouri and its tributaries. Sandstone, used by the Ponca to 

 polish wooden articles, is widely exposed along the Missouri bluffs. 



The principal mammals in the area at the present time are the 

 Virginia deer, coyote, beaver, raccoon, badger, muskrat, prairie dog, 

 weasel, gopher, and field mouse. Formerly bison, antelope, and 

 wapiti were found. The principal birds are the pinnated grouse, 

 Canada goose, redhead, pintail, teal, and mallard duck, coot, rail, 

 pelican, heron, golden eagle, bald eagle, and several varieties of 

 hawks and owls, together with the other small birds of the general 

 Nebraska area. 



The fish which occur most commonly in rivers and streams of the 

 Ponca country are the yellow and blue catfish, channel catfish, red 

 horse, buffalo, carp, smifish, and crappie. Of these, all are native 

 except the carp. Both snapping turtles and painted turtles are found. 

 Snakes most common in the area are the bull snake and garter snake, 

 although an occasional rattlesnake is encountered. 



The Ponca country is in the prairie region of the United States. 

 In the virgin areas throughout the uplands and terraces, the pre- 

 dominant grasses are big bluestem, little bluestem, and slender wheat- 

 grass. On the more sandy soils needlegrass predominates in most 



