360 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 191 



the sacred food. The handles depicted men and animals, either 

 singly or in groups, and again a simple, abstract treatment of the 

 forms was characteristic. Carvings were sometimes painted in poly- 

 chrome, although for the most part the finish was that of the natural 

 wood. 



With European contact beginning in 1615, the Iroquois entered 

 into a period of commercial and military expansion which brought 

 about far-reaching changes in their culture. As middlemen between 

 the colonists on the seaboard and the Indian tribes in the interior, 

 they came to dominate the fur trade. Firearms obtained from the 

 Dutch, and later from the English, enabled the League to develop the 

 most powerful fighting force in the northeast. By 1700 they had con- 

 quered all the surrounding tribes and, through war or diplomacy, 

 extended their influence from New England to Illinois and from the 

 Ottawa River to Tennessee. Taking an active part in the interco- 

 lonial wars, they fought unceasingly against the French and their 

 allies, the Canadian Algonquians, and were to a considerable extent 

 responsible for the triumph of the English on the American continent.* 

 The constant warfare, the wholesale adoption of captives with the 

 consequent introduction of alien customs, and the close cooperation 

 with the EngUsh, all had repercussions on Iroquois society. The 

 economy shifted from horticulture to hunting, raiding, and commerce; 

 militarism increased and warriors gained in prestige and political 

 power; the efforts of missionaries began to undermine the aboriginal 

 religion; and European trade goods became an essential part of mate- 

 rial culture. 



The effect of contact upon art was immediate and profound. 

 Manifold changes occurred in native materials, techniques, and de- 

 signs until, within a few generations, almost all Iroquois work showed 

 some European influence. Certain arts died out completely. Such 

 was the fate of pottery, which was soon made obsolete by the acquisi- 

 tion of metal containers. Work in stone and bone diminished and by 

 the 19th century much of the skill in the handicrafts had been lost. 

 The initial results of acculturation were not, however, wholly de- 

 structive. Some of the existing crafts were stimulated, at least for a 

 time, and in one instance a totally new skill, silversmithing, was 

 introduced.* With metal tools obtained from the Whites, wood- 

 carving became easier. This craft reached its height in the 18th 

 century and some authorities do not date the figures on bowls and 

 spoons before that period (Beauchamp, 1905 a, p. 154). Better 



* The alliance of the Iroquois with the Dutch and the English has been termed "the pivotal fact of early 

 American History" (Hunt, 1940, p. 6). 



» The introduction of trade goods had a similar effect on the arts of the Northwest Coast (Garfield, 1950, 

 p. 69). 



