SIERRA POPOLUCA SPEECH—FOSTER AND FOSTER 17 
the active voice may be conjugated for the passive. 
Conversely there are some changes from the intran- 
sitive to the transitive set in gerundial and 
contemporaneous clause constructions (19). Num- 
ber, ordinarily expressed by suffixation, is only ex- 
pressed by the pronominal prefixes of the first 
person of both sets to indicate the inclusive plural 
(8.4). 
THE INTRANSITIVE SET 
7.2. The intransitive set includes pronominal 
prefixes for the first, second, and third persons 
singular, and the first person plural. 
Person | Singular 
logically they are indistinguishable from those 
used intransitively, except for themes formed 
with the thematic prefixes na- (6.7) and ?ak- 
(6.6), and those formed with the indirective 
suffix -?a?y (6.17), which, since an object must be 
expressed, are always transitive. The transitive 
prefixes also are used with the verb of the sub- 
ordinate (linear) clause (and sometimes with the 
verb of the main clause) in linear-punctual con- 
temporaneous clause constructions (19.4), with 
the main verb of linear-linear contemporaneous 
clause constructions (19.5), and with the sub- 
ordinate verb of conditioned gerundial clause 
Plural constructions (19.10). 
eee ee eee ge eee ee ?a- ta- | 2d. 
Ce oc a Ee) mi- | Ist. per. obj. per. | 3d. per. obj. 
DO ets a ee ee oe | # (zero) obj. 
| 
?anckpa I go (*nak go), tandkpa we (inel.) go, 1st. per. SU ee ee ee man- | ?an- (sing.) 
minX<kpa you go, nakpa he goes | tan- (inel. 
is Hint ee a c : sy: 1.) 
7.3. Verb themes w hich take the intransitive set Od, per. sub..| Zan=(sing =<) rit 
of prefixes can neither be defined phonetically | 38d. per. sub__| ?a- (sing.)_---| mi- | ?i- 
nor morphologically, except for the verb themes | ee 
with the thematic suffixes -?a* (6.11), -?a?y (6.12), 
-?o?y; (6.14), and -ne? (6.15) which must always use 
the intransitive pronominal prefixes except in syn- 
tactic constructions as indicated above (7.1). 
Similarly, verbs conjugated in the passive, with 
the passive nonthematic suffix, always use the in- 
transitive set, although in the active voice they 
are transitive. A very few verb themes have been 
found which can take either the transitive or in- 
transitive set, with such meanings as “marry” and 
“marry someone,” “ook,” and ‘look (at) some- 
one,” “‘speak’’ and “‘speak (to) someone.” 
7.4. Stative verbs. Nouns, pronouns, and at- 
tributives which may modify nouns may be in- 
flected with the intransitive set of pronominal 
prefixes when used predicatively, e. g., ?aps-Sin 
IT am a man, ?a?ké it is I, mimié it is you, he? 
it is he (she, it). Since the prefix in the third per- 
son is phonetically zero, the independent third 
person pronoun he? usually is placed before the 
verbalized noun or attributive, e. g., he? px-sin 
he is a man, he? w&: he is good. 
THE TRANSITIVE SET 
7.5. Both subject and object are expressed by 
the transitive prefixes. Verb themes which re- 
quire an expressed object must have one of the 
prefixes of this set. Phonetically and morpho- 
Ambiguity which might result from the over- 
lapping of the prefix ?an- for both Ist. per. sub. 
3d. per. obj. sing. and 2d. per. sub. Ist. per. obj. 
sing. can be avoided by the use of the independent 
personal pronouns before the prefixes. If the in- 
dependent pronoun is omitted the meaning usually 
is understood as first person subject third person 
object. 
Pandi? or ?Aé anéi? I gave it to him (*ti? give) 
mié anéi? you gave it to me 
Only the first person may have inclusive plural 
prefixation. (See 8.4 for discussion and illustra- 
tions of plurals.) The transitive prefixes are 
given here with the verb theme **i°§ see. 
(?Aé) ma?ni-Spa I see you 
(AG) ?a?nf-Spa I see him (her, it) 
mié a?ni-Spa you see me 
(mié) ?i?fAfSpa you see him 
(hé?m) ?a?i-Spa he (she) sees me 
(hé?m) mi?iSpa he (she) sees you 
(hé?m) ?i?f-Spa he (she) sees him (her, 7t) 
ta?nfSpa we (incl.) see him (her, it) 
ta?i-Spa he (she) sees us (pl. incl.) 
8. NONTHEMATIC SUFFIXES OF THE VERB 
8.1. Aspect, number, voice, mode, agent, and 
subordinacy are expressed through nonthematic 
