SIERRA POPOLUCA SPEECH-——FOSTER AND FOSTER 19 
noun plural suffixes, but without the pronominal 
connotation (12.2). Plurality is unexpressed and 
contextually understood unless this would result 
in ambiguity, in which case it may be indicated 
in the ways discussed below. 
VERB PLURALIZATION 
There are three categories of first person subject 
or object plurals: the exclusive plural, the limited 
inclusive plural, and the generalized inclusive 
plural. The exclusive plural excludes the person 
or persons addressed. The limited inclusive plural 
includes the speaker and the person or persons 
addressed, and excludes any others who may be 
present or referred to. The generalized inclusive 
plural includes the speaker, person or persons ad- 
dressed, and any other person or persons present, 
or absent and referred to. 
The first person exclusive plural is formed with 
the suffix -ta?m with or without the personal pro- 
nouns, or by means of the plural personal pronouns 
without the suffix -ta?m. 
?amontd?mpa we are sleeping (?a- Ist. per. i. p. pref. + 
*mon sleep + -ta?m + -pa ine. suf.) 
?Aéta?m améypa same meaning; Ist. per. pl. pron. 
°<étam has been used, excluding the verbal suffix 
-ta’?’m 
°AGta?m amontd?mpa same meaning; both Ist. per. 
pl. pron. and the verbal suffix -ta?m are used 
?a?AGta?m amontd?mpa same meaning; occasionally 
in plural constructions the verbalized personal pro- 
nouns are used for emphasis. 
ma?nista?mpa J see you (pl.), we see you (pl. or sing.) 
(man- Ist. per. sub. 2d. per. obj. t. p. pref. + *?i°8 
see + -ta?m + -pa) 
In the case of the transitive pronominal prefix 
?an- which means both Ist. per. sub. 3d. per. obj. 
and 2d. per. sub. Ist. per. obj., the independent 
personal pronouns are often used to avoid am- 
biguity. 
Without pronouns: 
?a?ni-Sta?mpa J see them, we see him, you (sing.) see us, 
you (pl.) see me 
With pronouns: 
?AG a?niSta?mpa hé?yah I see them 
?Actam a?niS(ta?m)pa hé? we see him 
?AStam a?ni‘Sydhpa we see them 
mié a?niStd?mpa ?a?kétam you (sing. or pl.) see us 
(verbalized pron.) 
miétam a?ni-Sté?mpa 2a?kétam you (pl.) see us 
mi¢tam a?nf-S(ta?m)pa ?a?ké you (pl.) see me 
The first person limited inclusive plural is 
formed by attaching the pronominal prefix ta- 
(1st. per. pl. intransitive, and 3d. per. sub. Ist. 
per. obj. pl. transitive) or tan- (Ist. per. pl. sub. 
3d. per. obj. transitive) before the verb stem. 
taménpa we will sleep (*mon sleep) 
ta?nf-Spa we see him (her, it, them) (*?i'S see) 
ta?i-Spa he sees us 
The generalized first person inclusive plural is 
formed by attaching both the plural pronominal 
prefixes ta- or tan- before the verb stem and the 
plural suffix -ta?m after the verb stem. 
tamo7td?mpa we will sleep (*mon sleep) 
ta’nista?mpa we see him (her, it, them) (*?i'8 see) 
ta?ista?’mpa he (she, it, they) see us 
The second person plural is expressed by the use 
of the suffix -ta?m, the plural personal pronoun, or 
both. 
miménti?mpa you (pl.) sleep (mi- 2d. per. i. p. pref., 
*mon slecp) 
mictam mim6ypa same meaning; plural personal pro- 
noun used to express the plural 
miétam mimontd?mpa same meaning; both plural 
pronoun and suffix used 
?j?ni-sta?mpa you (pl.) see him 
mi?iSta?mpa he sees you (pl.) 
The third person plural is expressed by use of 
the suffix -yah. If both subject and object are in 
the third person the independent pronouns may 
be used to indicate whether subject or object or 
both are plural. When subject is first or second 
person and object third person, -yah pluralizes the 
object. 
monydhpa they sleep (*mo7n sleep) 
nakydhpa they go (*nak go) 
?i?i-Sydhpa they see him, he sees them (*?i°S see) 
hé?yah i?i-Sydhpa they see him 
he? i?i:Sydhpa pé?myah he sees them 
hé?yah i?i'Sy4hpa pé?myah they see them 
?a?niSydhpa I see them 
The collective suffix -num is used to express 
action undertaken collectively or by a group. It 
has been observed only with the thied person 
pronominal prefixes. 
se‘tnimum they just returned in a group (*se't return 
-um ene. just) 
wi’knimpam they were already eating in a group 
(*wi?k eat, -m enc. “just’’, ‘“already’’) 
8.5. The aspect suflixes—order IV. The iter- 
ative suffix -gak may be translated as “again,” 
“once more.” 
mingdkpa he comes again (*mifi come) 
wiasgakta'p he is being bitten again (*was bite) 
mi?i-snigakt4 you have been seen again (*?i'S see) 
®amdgnigdkpa I have slept again (*mon sleep) 
