SIERRA POPOLUCA SPEECH—FOSTER AND FOSTER 25 
as noun stems. Most descriptive themes are 
simple stems and include such words as wa’ good, 
pretty, ¢aba¢ red, hékos hot, pédpo white, siksuk 
cold, and the like. A few are compounded of two 
descriptive stems, e. ¢., pdhadaba¢ pink (péha 
faded+¢aba¢ red). In some cases a descriptive 
may function as a noun, with nonthematic affixa- 
tion of nouns, e. g., ?inwk'ma with your goodness. 
A descriptive may also occasionally be given a 
noun plural suffix, e. g., ¢Aba¢gyah kay red tigers 
(¢aba¢ red, -yah pl. suf., kay tiger). Some descrip- 
tives ending in a vowel have a combining form like 
that of nouns (10.1), used when they are com- 
pounded or suffixed, e. g., pophtkta candle (pop- 
comb. form of pépo white+hikta fre). 
13.3. Locators usually are stereotyped forms 
of a bound stem plus the noun indirective case 
suffix -ma (12.6). A thematic prefix ?ay- prob- 
ably equivalent to the noun thematic prefix (10.5) 
is often found with words of this category. Some 
of the most common locators are: yikma above, 
mtihma in the center, ktikma in the center, halfway, 
héhma deep, hu’ma far, ?anskkma outside, ’anwk'ma 
to the right, right hand (wa* good), ?annayma to the 
left, left hand. The suffix -wif is attached to two 
noun stems to form locators: nAaswin down, below 
(nas earth), sXnwih up, above (san sky). As noun 
modifiers locators are freely compounded following 
a noun theme (10.20). 
13.4. Tensors are monosyllabic or disyilabiec 
themes, some with a suffix -sk. Most commonly 
they are used adverbially to give a time orienta- 
tion to the modified verb or phrase. Some of the 
most common tensors are winak long ago, hésak 
then, when, matkk yesterday, héyma today, ?idak 
imperfective tensor, ?6kma afterwards, then, hébit 
soon, sk?ap now. <A tensor may occasionally 
modify a noun, e. g., winak pA*sih men of long ago. 
13.5. Intensifiers are most commonly used ad- 
verbially. They indicate concepts such as ‘‘very”’ 
and ‘also.’ Some intensifiers are stereotyped 
forms of a stem plus an enclitic. Some of the 
most common are: gam very, ?Aga (?Ae1, ?4ki) very, 
how, mes also, éya also, éybak again (ene. -pak), 
kAktim also (enc. -tim). 
13.6. Demonstrative adjectives are the demon- 
strative pronouns used as noun modifiers: ya’p 
this (this one), pe’m that (that one), and tingak 
which varies with ttiygam another. The third 
person pronoun he? he, she, it shoulda also be 
included here in its usage as the definite article. 
The demonstrative adjectives, except ttingak/ 
tvingam, and the definite article may be given the 
pluralizing suffix -yah. Demonstrative adverbs are 
yarm here, hem there, hémak there, hé?Sak there. 
13.7. Interrogatives include both simple stem 
and compound stem interrogatives, two formed 
with a thematic suffix -¢ay, and one consisting of 
a stereotyped form of stem plus the noun indirec- 
tive suffix -ma (12.6). The interrogative adjectives 
are hup which (also inter. pron.) and hu?¢ what 
kind of, how, which may also be used adverbially. 
Interrogative adverbs are hi¢ma to where, ti?iga 
why (ti inter. pron. “what” + ?iga conj. that), 
hu’t where, hui¢an to where, how much, titan, how 
is it that, to what (ti inter. pron. “what’’). Most 
interrogatives may also be used as relatives. 
13.8. There are several quantitative adjectives 
which have a thematic suffix -ay or -pay. 
hésan, this much, this many 
san a little 
ha?yan much, many 
hi¢pay how much, what size 
13.9. There are two negatives, da and °ddoy. 
da is used in all but modal clauses. ?6doy is the 
modal negative, used in imperative phrases and 
subjunctive clauses. A compound theme dakéman 
means “‘never.”’ 
13.10. Conjunctions are simple stem and com- 
pound stem themes, and stereotyped themes of a 
stem plus an enclitic. Some of the most common 
conjunctions are *iga that, as, hinum since, as, 
igatim it is that, ?iganam while, he?yikma for 
this, that is why (he? 3d pers. pron. + ytikma 
above, on), hésak when, mu (ma, mo, mi) when, 
"1 and (probably Sp. “y?’), mé?iga if (?iga that), 
mé?da if not, ti?iga because (ti rel. pron. ‘what’? + 
*ioa that). 
13.11. Interjections include phrase words as 
ha yes, da no, mop certainly, and ?ay exclamatory. 
13.12. Participial adverbs are formed from verb 
themes plus the suffix -imu, e. g., sikimu laughing 
(*Sik laugh). 
14. ENUMERATIVES 
14.1. Popoluca numbers beyond six have been 
replaced by Spanish. Numerals (except ‘‘one’’) 
are always composed of a bound stem plus non- 
thematic affixes. There are two suffixes for 
cardinal enumeration. These seem roughly to 
divide into temporal and objective categories. 
There are, however, many exceptions, so that it 
