SIERRA POPOLUCA SPEECH—FOSTER AND FOSTER 33 
meaning + ?ima¢ tA?pa to catch fish + ?i hémum 
and there [71 Sp. “‘y”’] + ?iku?iSA?y he met + hée?m 
yé'mo the woman) 
21. THE SYNTACTIC ELEMENTS OF THE 
CLAUSE 
21.1. The predicative word. The predicative 
word may be an active, passive, or stative verb 
form. Stative verbs may be verbalized nouns, 
pronouns, or attributives (7.4). 
?ina?’mad?ypa he says to him (*na?mad?y say to) 
nA?maytd'p iyé'mo it is said to his wife 
he? ké-ya it 7s a rabbit (ké-ya rabbit) 
?a?ké it is I (?aé I) 
mimdhpak you are big (mah big) 
21.2. The independent subject. Subject always 
is expressed by the subjective pronominal ele- 
ment of the verb, and in addition it may also be 
expressed appositionally by a noun, a series of 
nouns (which may or may not be joined by the 
conjunction 71 and), a pronoun, an attributive 
with the enclitic -pak, or a cardinal or pronominal 
enumerative. 
pe?m ¢i:mpa woékpa that dog barks (¢iimpa dog) 
me?¢td-wom tim yéya ?i tim SiS i thm ¢é'mo a pig 
and a bull and an old woman were searched for (yéya 
pig, SiS bull, é6°mo old woman) 
?ac amin hu?d ff ifhdtu?y ifd-pa J came from where 
your father and mother live (?ifhdtun your father, 
?indpa your mother) 
pe?m sé‘tpa that one returns (pe?m that one) 
?1 ?iwdtpa who is doing it (71 who) 
hésagam dapak in¢é-n namydhpa then those who didn’t 
answer say .... (da neg. at. + -pak part. enc. > 
dapak those who didn’t) 
hé?’m tukuté?n inika?md¢ the three shook hands with 
him (he?m def. art., tukutén three) 
?aktdnpa ?ikukwAstak the two of them fell (?ikukwAstak 
the two of them) 
21.3. The independent object. Object is always 
expressed by the objective pronominal element of 
the verb, but, like the subject, it may also be 
expressed appositionally by a noun, a series of 
nouns (which may or may not be joined by the 
conjunction ?i and), a pronoun, an attributive 
with the enclitic -pak, or a cardinal or pronominal 
enumerative. 
?i?f-Spa ?i?6"mi he saw his master (?i?6'mi his master) 
?anci? tim mdhkuy ?i tum pék J gave him a pitcher 
and a calabash (maéhkuy pitcher, pok calabash) 
°a?nfS pé?m J saw thal one (pe?m that one) 
mié impdtne? wA‘bak you have found that which is good 
(wa‘ good + -pak part. ene. > wA‘bak that which is 
good) 
?i?f'S tukutén he saw three (tukutén three) 
mié antéppa ?ankutikutam you will take all three of us 
out (?ankutikutam all three of us) 
21.4. The predicate modifier. The predicate 
modifier may be a word, a modifying clause, a 
subordinate clause, or a series of modifying and/or 
subordinate clauses. The modifying word may 
be a noun inflected with one of the case suffixes, a 
noun with a locative modifier or used with a 
locative significance, a temporalized noun, an 
adverbial enumerative, or an attributive of one 
of the following types: negative, intensifier, loca- 
tor, tensor, demonstrative adverb, relative, or 
interrogative adverb, participial adverb, or quan- 
titative. 
?6kma pdypa hamndém then he ran into the woods 
(hamii- comb. form of hAmfni woods + -hom loc. suf.) 
ki?mpa takké‘bakyikma he climbs on the roof 
(takké‘bak roof + yuikma on) 
nuk kikma ldmar he arrived in the middle of the ocean 
(kikma middle) 
?i8é-tipak ?ipdtpa after his return he met him (?i8étipak 
after his return temporalized noun modif. ?ipdtpa 
he met him) 
hé? pA‘Sif waskay sé‘t the man turned twice (wAskay 
twice) 
?ddoy péya don’t run away! (?édoy modal neg.) 
gam miSikpa you will laugh much (¢am much) 
pe?m hén kékpa yuikma that bird is flying above 
(yukma above) 
Papasi?a idak he was a man (?idak tensor) 
yA?m ait I am here (ya?m here) 
ha?d ft where is it? (hu?t where) 
hui¢pay mihdya how valiant you are (hi¢gpay how much) 
Sikfmu nk laughing he went (Sikimu laughing) 
?imaténpa tiipa he heard it make noise (tifipa it 
makes noise pred. verb of modif. perceptive clause) 
hé?m hayéA‘Si nAkpa ?imé?¢ hd?t se?tta:p the boy 
went to search for where it was being fried (?ime?¢ 
to search for pred. verb of subord. ger. clause, hu?t 
se?tta'p where it was being fried rel. modif. clause) 
21.5. The subject or object modifier. The 
subject or object modifier may be a word or a 
relative or agentive clause. Modifying words 
may be of the following types: possessor noun or 
pronoun modifying a possessed noun, descriptive, 
locator, tensor (rarely), quantitative, demonstra- 
tive adjective, cardinal enumerative. 
?inkehayydhpa ¢dg iti?¢ they showed her the rat’s tail 
(?ita?¢ his tail obj. noun modif. by ¢uk rat) 
?a?nf{Spa mié inéimpa J see your dog (mié you modif. 
inéi'mpa your dog) 
*iéigayné?0m tim pak ¢ti‘papak she had left a sharp 
bone (¢i*pa sharp + -pak part. enc., modif. pak 
bone) 
