34 INSTITUTE OF SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY—PUBLICATION NO. 8 
kf?mpa yikmapak kty he climbs the high tree (yakma 
above locator + -pak part. enc. > yukmapak high 
modif. kuy tree) 
wihak pA-si?A ff yA?m men of long ago lived here 
(winak long ago tensor modif. pA-Sin man, men) 
nik ha?yan ¢<-Stam many children arrived (hé?yan 
many quant. modif. ¢<*Stam children) 
yA?p k4wa péypa this horse is running (ya?p this dem. 
adj. modif. kAwa horse) 
?ana?it wasté?n ammdanak I have two children (wastén 
two modif. ?ammdanak my children) 
?ikupadd?ypa tim tXk hd?t sd?ba ?iwi?kkuywét tim 
é6'mo he found a house where an old woman was 
making her dinner (hu?t where intro. rel. clause modif. 
tak house) 
hemu?m ini?ft he?m pak ikka?wA?ap there he had the 
bone which killed him (?ikka?wX?ap which killed him 
ag. clause modif. pak bone) 
22. USE OF SYNTACTIC ELEMENTS 
VERBS 
22.1. The verb. The verb is used as the predica- 
tive word of a main, modifying or subordinate 
clause (see examples sections 17, 18, 19). When a 
pronoun is separated by modifying elements from 
the verb of which it is the subject, or follows the 
verb of which it is the subject or object, it often 
becomes verbalized. Pronoun verbalization also 
is often used for added emphasis. 
ta?<é da ?anh<ypa we don’t make noise (ta?Xé st. verb 
“we’’) 
mié a?ni‘Spxkpa ?a?<étam you know us (?a?<étam st. 
verb ‘“‘us’’) 
nakpa ?a?nd4?m a?ké I will go to see (?a?ké st. verb 
a2) 
PRONOUNS 
22.2. The personal and demonstrative pronouns. 
Personal and demonstrative pronouns may be used 
as independent subjects and objects of the pred- 
icative verb, as possessor modifiers of a possessed 
noun, or in apposition to another independent 
pronoun used as the subject of a verb. 
?AE Panmatpa T will speak (?aé I sub.) 
he? Gi?a give it to him! (he? him obj.) 
téypa ?Aé anké-bak my head hurts (?aé I modif. 
?anké‘bak my head) 
miéam hé?am miprimerpA‘Sin just you are the first man 
(lit. ‘just you, just he, you are the first man’’) 
(miéam just you pron. in apposition to hé?am just he. 
miéam governs st. verb. miprimerpA‘Sin you are the 
first man) 
?ké he?m ankd‘sputpd?ap I am he who sprouts at the 
knees (?aé I in apposition to he?m he) 
22.3. The relative and interrogative pronouns. 
The relative and interrogative pronouns are used 
to introduce relative or interrogative clauses. 
fi ?iwdtpa he?m nti?pu what is the vulture doing? (ti 
what) 
°anmata 71 ?innXyi tell what your name is! (lit. “tell 
who is your name!’’) (?i who) 
NOUNS 
22.4. The noun. A noun in absolute form, or a 
noun with possessive pronominal prefixes and/or 
plural suffixes may be used either as the subject 
or object of a predicative verb. A noun inflected 
with one of the case suffixes, or a noun used in a 
locative or temporal sense, functions as a modifier 
of the predicative verb. A noun also may be used 
as a form of address in direct discourse. 
?i?fSpa ¢dkpa hikta ménsayikma he saw a fire shine 
on a mesa (hikta fire sub. of verb ¢6kpa it shines, 
ménsayikma on a mesa < ménsa mesa + yikma 
on locator) 
?ikétpa ?iy6?ti she puts on her shirt (?iy6?ti her shirt 
obj. of ?ikétpa she puts zt on) 
witak he?am ¢<‘Sta?m ininkk i¢unhdé:tuy long ago the 
children went with their stepfather (¢&‘Stam children 
sub. noun, ?iéunhd‘tuy their stepfather obj. noun) 
da yoSé:p kdyamhém he doesn’t work in the ashes 
(kiyam ashes + -hom loc. suf.) 
nAkpa mi?iti wathAmni you will go to live in the forest 
(wathdmni forest with loc. significance modif. verb) 
°ipagndkpa ki?yaynké-bak he threw it to the top of the 
tree (kN? yanké'bak lop of the tree modif. verb) 
nukydhpa naSytikma they came down on the ground 
(naSyukina on the ground comp. of noun and locator) 
he?m é6‘mo ?ikukehhdma n&ko?m inmaAdayta: the old 
woman then went to notify him at sunrise (lit. ‘‘the 
old woman at her sunrise then went to notify him’’) 
(?ikukehhdma her sunrise modif. verb nXkom she 
then went) 
ti ?inwdtpa ?4°¢i what are you doing, uncle? (?4-bi 
uncle) 
ATTRIBUTIVES 
22.5. The descriptive attributives. Descrip- 
tive attributives may function as noun or verb 
modifiers. In both syntactic functions they are 
usually found with the enclitic -pak. 
?a?niS pekapak tak (also ?a?nf'S péka tak) I saw an 
old house (peka old modif. tak house) 
?6kmA mdyma?yam nXkkum ké-ya then happily the 
rabbit went (mdymay happily modif. verb nak he went) 
22.6. The locator. 
a noun or a verb. 
méypa kikma tAn he sleeps in the center of the path 
(kuikma in the center modif. tun path) 
kékpa yikma it flies above (yikma above modif. kékpa 
it flies) 
The locator may modify 
